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The Redbook

by: Garner, Bryan A.

The Redbook

by: Garner, Bryan A.

ISBN 13:
9780314168917
ISBN 10:
0314168915
Edition: 2nd
Format: Paperback
Copyright: 07/18/2006
Publisher: West Academic

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Summary

Provides a comprehensive guide to the essential rules of legal writing. Unlike most style or grammar guides, it focuses on the special needs of legal writers, answering a wide spectrum of questions about grammar and style - both rules as well as exceptions. Also gives detailed, authoritative advice on punctuation, capitalization, spelling, footnotes, and citations, with illustrations in legal context. Designed for law students, law professors, practicing lawyers and judges, the work emphasizes the ways in which legal writing differs from other styles of technical writing. Its how-to sections deal with editing and proofreading, numbers and symbols, and overall document design.

Part 1: Mechanics

Punctuation

(50)

Overview

(1)

Commas

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use commas to separate words or phrases in a series of three or more, and include a comma before the conjunction

(1)

Serial comma

(1)

Complex phrases

(1)

Conjunction repeated

(1)

Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so)

(1)

Defined

(1)

Compound predicate distinguished

(1)

Choice between comma and semicolon

(1)

Comma splice

(1)

Use a comma to set off an introductory phrase unless the phrase is short and the verb follows it closely

(1)

Types of introductory matter

(1)

Exception

(1)

Inverted sentence

(1)

Direct address

(1)

Use commas to set off a nonrestrictive phrase or clause from the rest of the sentence

(1)

Defined

(1)

Nonrestrictive appositive

(1)

Restrictive appositive

(1)

Dependent clause

(1)

Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives and adverbs---that is, the type that modify their target rather than each other

(1)

Definition and tests

(1)

Not coordinate

(1)

Use a comma to set off a direct quotation of fewer than 50 words, unless the quoted matter is woven into the sentence itself or is introduced by a colon

(1)

Placement

(1)

Colon as a substitute

(1)

In context

(1)

Do not place a comma where it interferes with the flow of the sentence

(2)

Before the predicate

(1)

Phrase after conjunction or relative pronoun

(1)

Before parentheses

(1)

With nominal abbreviations

(1)

Law-firm short form

(1)

In a full date that is written month-day-year, put a comma between the day and the year. Unless the date is being used as an adjective, place a comma after the year if the sentence continues. Do not use a comma with the style day-month-year or month-year

(1)

American style

(1)

Military and British style

(1)

No day

(1)

Use a comma to break down numbers of 1,000 and more into sets of three digits

(1)

Separating by threes

(1)

Exceptions

(1)

Use a comma (never a semicolon) after the salutation in a personal letter

(1)

Informal salutation

(1)

Business correspondence

(1)

Consider using a comma where one or more words are omitted but understood in context

(1)

Understood words

(1)

Often optional

(1)

Dramatic pause

(1)

Semicolons

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction

(1)

Semicolon alone

(1)

Exception

(1)

Strength of connector

(1)

Coordinating conjunction

(1)

Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses if the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression rather than a conjunction

(1)

Common conjunctive adverbs

(1)

Transitional expressions

(1)

With comma

(1)

Use semicolons instead of commas to separate items in a series if any of the items contains an internal comma or if semicolons would make the sentence clearer

(1)

Internal commas

(1)

Complexity

(1)

To separate citations

(1)

Use semicolons to separate items in a series when the items are set off separately, as in a statute or contract

(1)

Series lists

(1)

Advantages

(1)

Use a semicolon to separate an appositive or elaboration at the end of a sentence if the matter is introduced by that is, for example, namely, or a similar device

(1)

Appositive matter

(1)

No signal

(1)

Colons

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use a colon to join two separate but directly related clauses or phrases

(1)

As a pointer

(1)

Optional nature of use

(1)

Phrase after colon

(1)

If what follows the colon is not a complete sentence, do not capitalize the first word; if it is a complete sentence, you may choose to capitalize or not. Whatever style you choose, be consistent

(1)

With phrase

(1)

With sentence

(1)

Use a colon to introduce a quotation, list, or statement

(2)

Choice of punctuation

(1)

In transcripts

(1)

Numbered list

(1)

Appositive list

(1)

Interrupting colon

(1)

Formal quotation

(1)

Use a colon after the salutation in a formal letter and after each tag line in a memorandum

(1)

Formality

(1)

British style

(1)

In a memorandum

(1)

Use a colon to designate a ratio or analogy

(1)

Ratio

(1)

Analogy

(1)

A colon is also used in several ways in citations and references, including citing the case record

(1)

Citations

(1)

Miscellaneous uses

(1)

Quotation Marks

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use double quotation marks around a run-in quotation shorter than 50 words or five lines, but not around a block quotation

(1)

Generally

(1)

Multiple paragraphs

(1)

Block quotation

(1)

Other set-off matter

(1)

Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a marked quotation, and alternate double and single quotation marks for more deeply nested quotations

(1)

Awkwardness

(1)

In block quotations

(1)

Alternative style

(1)

Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that is being referred to as a term, or else italicize it

(1)

Generally

(1)

Italics as alternative

(1)

Use quotation marks to mean ``so-called'' or (more negatively) to mean ``so-called-but-not-really''

(1)

Odd or informal use

(1)

With ``so-called''

(1)

With phrasal adjectives

(1)

Nicknames

(1)

Connoting irony

(1)

For sarcasm

(1)

Place other punctuation marks correctly in relation to quotation marks: periods and commas go inside; semicolons and colons go outside; and question marks and exclamation marks go inside only if they are part of the quoted matter

(2)

With period or comma

(1)

With semicolon or colon

(1)

With question mark or exclamation mark

(1)

Amendment exception

(1)

Parentheses

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use parentheses to set off extraneous matter (such as an explanation, reference, or comment) in a sentence or paragraph

(1)

Incidental to sentence

(1)

Minimizing effect

(1)

Use parentheses to define a quick reference for a longer name

(1)

Quick reference

(1)

Often not necessary

(1)

With quotation marks

(1)

Avoiding surplusage

(1)

Use parentheses to set off numbers and letters that denote subparts

(1)

Generally

(1)

In pairs

(1)

Special conventions

(1)

Exception

(1)

Use parentheses in citations as prescribed by the citation manual you follow

(1)

Idiosyncrasies

(1)

Nesting parentheses

(1)

Space between phrases

(1)

Punctuate and capitalize parenthetical matter correctly

(1)

Terminal punctuation

(1)

Capitalization

(1)

Brackets

(1)

Overview

(1)

Bracket an editorial remark or clarification inside a quotation

(1)

Editorial comment

(1)

[Sic]

(1)

No italics for brackets

(1)

Use brackets to indicate that part of a word has been omitted or that one or more characters have been changed

(1)

Omissions and substitutions

(1)

Placement

(1)

Overuse

(1)

Ellipsis distinguished

(1)

In legal writing---as opposed to in other types of writing---do not use brackets as subordinate parentheses inside parenthetical matter

(1)

As ``subparentheses''

(1)

Rephrasing or paraphrasing

(1)

Ellipsis Dots

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use three ellipsis dots to indicate the omission of one or more words inside a quotation

(1)

Midsentence

(1)

Paragraph omitted

(1)

Use four dots (three ellipsis dots and a period, all identical) to indicate the omission of either (1) the end of a sentence, or (2) matter after a completed sentence when the quotation continues. Use a space before the first dot only if the matter that was omitted was the end of a sentence

(1)

Space after last word

(1)

No space after last word

(1)

Do not use ellipsis dots at the beginning of a quotation or where the quoted matter is worked into the syntax of the main sentence

(1)

Start of sentence omitted

(1)

In syntax

(1)

Keep the ellipses dots standard by using hard spaces and the correct typographic elements

(1)

Hard spacing

(1)

Asterisks

(1)

Ellipsis dots can indicate an unfinished sentence that trails off

(1)

Trailing off

(1)

Interruption

(1)

Em-dashes

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use an em-dash---or a pair of em-dashes as required by sentence structure---to give matter that is independent of the main sentence more emphasis than parentheses would provide

(1)

Setting off words at beginning or end of sentence

(1)

In midsentence

(1)

With appositive

(1)

Use an em-dash---or multiple em-dashes---in several conventions to indicate missing information

(1)

In a transcript

(1)

In dates. Use an em-dash after the birth year in a biographical reference to indicate that the person is still alive

(1)

Expunction

(1)

In citations

(1)

Same author

(1)

To be supplied

(1)

En-dashes

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use an en-dash to designate a span from one value to another, but avoid it to stand for to if the word from is used

(1)

To show a range

(1)

Not mixed with words

(1)

Use an en-dash to join two terms of equal weight

(1)

To show equality

(1)

To show duality

(1)

Follow the established convention within a given jurisdiction to use the en-dash to join sections or chapters and subparts

(1)

By convention

(1)

To distinguish

(1)

Ambiguity

(1)

Hyphens

(1)

Overview

(1)

Hyphenate a phrasal adjective that appears before a noun or pronoun unless it falls within one of several narrow exceptions

(3)

Basic rule

(1)

Need for clarity

(1)

After the noun

(1)

``-ly'' adverbs

(1)

Proper nouns

(1)

Foreign phrases

(1)

With multiple first elements

(1)

Common legal wordings that contain phrasal adjectives

(1)

Use a hyphen with numbers to join two-word spelled-out numbers from 21 to 99 and to write fractions unless one of the numbers is already hyphenated

(1)

With numbers

(1)

With fractions

(1)

An exception

(1)

Use a hyphen to break a word between syllables at the end of a line

(1)

For line breaks

(1)

Between syllables only

(1)

Use a hyphen to show that you are referring to a prefix, suffix, letter, or letters in a word; to indicate syllabification; and to show that a word is being spelled out

(1)

Part of a word

(1)

For syllabication

(1)

For spelling

(1)

Avoid using a hyphen after a routine prefix---but note the exceptions

(1)

Generally

(1)

With proper nouns

(1)

With certain prefixes

(1)

Other exceptions

(1)

Periods

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use a period to end a declaratory statement, an indirect question, or a request

(1)

Generally

(1)

Matter of interpretation

(1)

With exclamation mark

(1)

With declaratory sentence

(1)

Use periods after letters or numbers in an outline or list

(1)

Outline style

(1)

Decimal numbering system

(1)

Parentheses or period

(1)

Use a period after a heading only if the heading is run in with text or is a complete sentence

(1)

No period with tags

(1)

Period with sentences

(1)

Read-in tags

(1)

Consistency

(1)

Use a period after most abbreviations, but not after most contracted abbreviations

(1)

Generally

(1)

No periods

(1)

Contractions contrasted

(1)

ALWD abbreviations

(1)

With state names

(1)

Avoid periods after letters in an acronym or initialism unless a different style is required by your court's citation rules or preferred by local practice

(1)

Modern style

(1)

Conventions

(1)

Question Marks

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use a question mark to end an interrogative sentence

(1)

Interrogative mood

(1)

Interrogative tag

(1)

Declaratory form

(1)

Multiple endings

(1)

Compound sentence

(1)

Indirect question

(1)

Use a question mark after a questioning word, phrase, or clause contained in the main sentence but separated from it by parentheses or em-dashes

(1)

Capitalization

(1)

No second terminal punctuation

(1)

Use a question mark in parentheses to indicate uncertainty about what immediately precedes it

(1)

Dates

(1)

Not terminal punctuation

(1)

Exclamation Marks

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use an exclamation mark to end a sentence that expresses a demand, surprise, danger, stress, or some other intense emotion

(1)

Generally

(1)

In place of question mark

(1)

Use an exclamation mark after an exclamatory interjection

(1)

Generally

(1)

No mark with vocative ``O''

(1)

An exclamation mark in parentheses may indicate feigned shock at or mockery of what immediately precedes it

(1)

Reference

(1)

Editorial protest

(1)

Apostrophes

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive case

(1)

Generally

(1)

Possessive pronouns

(1)

Use an apostrophe to mark a contraction: it represents omitted letters (or numbers in a date)

(1)

Generally

(1)

In dates

(1)

In formal writing

(1)

Use an apostrophe (followed by s) to form the plural of letters, single-digit numbers, symbols, and some abbreviations

(1)

Incorrect and correct uses

(1)

With lowercase abbreviations

(1)

Slashes

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use a slash in a limited number of grammatical conventions; where alternative punctuation is appropriate, avoid the slash

(1)

Fractions

(1)

Dates

(1)

Abbreviations

(1)

Alternatives

(1)

Double offices

(1)

Line breaks

(1)

In examples

(1)

Bullets

(1)

Overview

(1)

Use bullets to create visual appeal in setting out important lists

(1)

With colon

(1)

Plain bullets

(1)

Hanging indent

(1)

Indent list

(1)

Spacing

(1)

Avoid bullets if the subparts marked by them will need to be cited

(1)

Cannot be cited

(1)

Numbers or letters instead

(1)

Capitalization

(16)

Overview

(1)

Use lowercase unless a rule calls for capitalization

(1)

Down-style vs. up-style

(1)

Quotations exception

(1)

Consistency

(1)

Capitalize the first word in a sentence

(1)

Names

(1)

Sentence in a sentence

(1)

Lines of poems

(1)

Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation if it is a full sentence and formally introduced; do not capitalize if it is a partial sentence, is grammatically woven into the main sentence, or is introduced by the conjunction that. Do not capitalize an indirect quotation

(1)

Direct quotation

(1)

Partial sentence

(1)

Sentence parts

(1)

Following ``that''

(1)

Indirect quotation

(1)

Capitalization of original

(1)

Capitalize the first word in a direct question, even if it does not begin the sentence

(1)

Direct question

(1)

Indirect question distinguished

(1)

Capitalize proper nouns---usually, the names of people and places or the titles of statutes, books, articles, and the like

(1)

Common and proper nouns

(1)

Trademarks

(1)

Artwork

(1)

Midword capitals

(1)

Proper-noun phrases

(1)

Old writings

(1)

Capitalize short-form proper nouns

(1)

Full and short names

(1)

Specific governmental acts

(1)

The term ``rule''

(1)

Follow established conventions in capitalizing adjectives formed from proper nouns

(1)

Exclusively proper nouns

(1)

Nonexclusive nouns

(1)

Nonexclusive adjectives

(1)

Capitalize defined terms

(1)

Convention

(1)

Syntax

(1)

Emphasis and clarity

(1)

Capitalize up-style headings

(1)

Styles

(1)

Uncapitalized words

(1)

Hyphenated and open compounds

(1)

Make initialisms and acronyms (words and abbreviated names formed from the initials or parts of other words) all caps unless an exception applies

(1)

Generally

(1)

Proper-name acronyms

(1)

Generic common nouns

(1)

State abbreviations

False acronyms

(1)

Capitalize the word court in reference to (1) the United States Supreme Court; (2) the highest tribunal in the jurisdiction whose laws govern the outcome, such as a state supreme court; and (3) the court you are addressing, even if it is the lowest court within its jurisdiction

(1)

Deference

(1)

Lower courts

(1)

Capitalize a geographic term if it is part of a proper name or, by custom, if it denotes a well-defined region or area, but not if it merely denotes a direction or position

(1)

Compass points

(1)

Positions

(1)

Descriptive or identifying terms

(1)

Political divisions

(1)

Topographical names

(1)

Capitalize calendar terms that are proper nouns, but not those that are generic terms

(1)

Days and months

(1)

Seasons

(1)

Holidays

(1)

Capitalize titles of honor or respect

(1)

Title before name

(1)

Title not before name

(1)

In addresses

(1)

Titles in second person

(1)

Job titles

(1)

Parties

(1)

Other cases

(1)

Capitalize a word or phrase that denotes an important epoch or historical event

(1)

Generally

(1)

Numerical designations

(1)

Generic terms

(1)

Capitalize the name of anything personified

(1)

Proper-name substitutes

(1)

Fictitious names

(1)

Vividness

(1)

Capitalize to show irony or mockery

(1)

Emphasis

(1)

Caution

(1)

Avoid all-caps writing

(1)

History

(1)

Readability

(1)

Initial caps

(1)

Limited capitals

(1)

Different font

(1)

Limited all caps

(1)

Use caps and small caps (uppercase letters about as small as most lowercase letters) when a citation-system rule or other directive requires them or when the usage is conventional

(2)

Dates and eras

(1)

Other abbreviations

(1)

Never in main text

(1)

Periodical titles

(1)

Book titles

(1)

Authors

(1)

Law-review citations

(1)

Follow any special rules that may require caps and small caps

(2)

Court rules

(1)

Government rules

(1)

Practitioners' usage

(1)

Judicial opinions

(1)

Italics, Boldface, and Underlining

(8)

Overview

(1)

Use italics (preferably not underlining) to show emphasis

(1)

Styles compared

(1)

Exception

(1)

In quotations

(1)

Use italics for foreign words and phrases that have not been anglicized

(1)

Uneven application

(1)

General rule

(1)

Use italics to signal that a letter, word, or phrase is being used as a term---when defining it, for example---rather than for its meaning

(1)

Preferred to quotation marks

(1)

In contracts

(1)

In hypotheticals

(1)

Use italics for case names

(1)

Legal convention

(1)

Informal names

(1)

In text

(1)

Use italics for the titles of books and other publications, and (only in legal writing) for the titles of articles

(1)

Books

(1)

Articles

(1)

Periodicals

(1)

Use italics for citation signals

(1)

Purpose

(1)

Signals as sentence elements

(1)

Use italics to report subsequent history in a citation, but not for other information

(1)

Subsequent history

(1)

Other information

(1)

When a word or phrase within italicized matter should itself be italicized, make it roman instead

(1)

Toggle between roman and italics

(1)

Context

(1)

Do not italicize a punctuation mark after italicized matter unless it is a part of the matter itself

(1)

Trailing punctuation

(1)

Exception

(1)

Despite all the earlier rules, do not overuse italics

(1)

Effective when rare

(1)

Ineffective when overused

(1)

Rhetorical techniques

(1)

Explaining emphasis

(1)

Reserve boldface type for headings

(1)

For separation

(1)

Not in text

(1)

Use italics for names of ships, spacecraft, and other vessels

(1)

Name only, not class

(1)

Trains

(1)

Document Design

(12)

Overview

(1)

Follow court rules in formatting all documents to be filed in court

(1)

Meticulous formatting

(1)

Typographical tricks

(1)

Fonts

(1)

Choose a readable font that is appropriate for the document

(1)

Definitions

(1)

Variations

(1)

Courier

(1)

Never use more than two fonts in a document

(1)

Mixing styles

(1)

Ransom-note effect

(1)

Use an appropriate type size

(1)

Readability

(1)

Size

(1)

Headings

(1)

White Space

(1)

Use white space purposefully

(1)

Definition and purpose

(1)

Focal point

(1)

Contrast

(1)

Comprehension

(1)

Leave a little more room in your margins than you are required to

(1)

Readability

(1)

Convenience

(1)

Extra space at bottom

(1)

Gutters

(1)

Use initial indents of a quarter of an inch or so; use the tab key or automatic paragraph formatting to keep them consistent

(1)

Purpose

(1)

Width of indents

(1)

Block quotations

(1)

Uniformity

(1)

Use hanging indents on contracts, statutes, and other documents with numbered and lettered subparts

(1)

Definition

(1)

Purpose of hanging indents

(1)

Length of indents

(1)

Justification

(1)

Avoid full justification; set text flush left

(1)

Definition

(1)

Readability

(1)

Avoiding rivers

(1)

Reserve centering and flush-right alignments for special uses

(1)

Centering

(1)

Flush right

(1)

Horizontal Spacing

(1)

Use even forward-spacing in your documents: one space between words and one space after punctuation marks (including colons and periods)

(1)

Typewriter limitations

(1)

Word processors and flexibility

(1)

Use a hard (nonbreaking) space to avoid breaking lines at inappropriate places

(1)

Hard space

(1)

Importance

(1)

Ellipses

(1)

Mark the beginning of a paragraph by tab-indenting the first line. In a single-spaced document, leave an extra line between paragraphs

(1)

Indenting

(1)

New chapter or section

(1)

Intervening space

(1)

Block style

(1)

To ensure that the indentation is consistent throughout the document, use a tab instead of the spacebar for indenting

(1)

Paragraph indents

(1)

Aligning columns

(1)

Avoid adjusting a font's spacing or width

(1)

Spacing

(1)

Width

(1)

Limitations

(1)

Vertical Spacing

(1)

Prefer single-spaced documents in-house, but for court filings always follow rules and customs that require double-spacing

(1)

Advantages of single-spacing

(1)

Disadvantages of double-spacing

(1)

Court rules

(1)

Double-space draft documents to make them easier to edit

(1)

Editing ease

(1)

Triple-spacing

(1)

Avoid awkward page breaks

(1)

Headings

(1)

Widows and orphans

(1)

Headings

(1)

Make the hierarchy of headings clear to the reader by using a combination of outlining tags, capitalization style, type style, and type size

(1)

Outlining tags

(1)

Decimal tags for legal drafting

(1)

Capitalization

(1)

Type style

(1)

Type size

(1)

Combining techniques

(1)

Number of levels

(1)

Progressive indents

(1)

Cascading hanging indents in legal drafting

(1)

Except for short top-level section headings, which may be centered, prefer headines to be set flush left and single-spaced, with a tight hanging indent

(1)

Centering

(1)

Flush left

(1)

Single-spaced

(1)

Hanging indent

(1)

Use headings and subheadings to help the reader follow the structure of your document. Use a little extra space above breaks to help divide up the text

(1)

Reader cues

(1)

Spacing

(1)

SubheaPdings

(1)

Numbers

(10)

Overview

(1)

Be consistent about when to use numerals and when to spell out numbers in text---preferably spelling out one to ten and using numerals for 11 and above

(1)

Main conventions

(1)

Other conventions

(1)

Numerals in citations

(1)

In titles

(1)

If one item of a kind should be in numerals, then use numerals for all items of that kind in the immediate context

(1)

In series

(1)

In proximity

(1)

If two numbers that are not of the same kind appear next to each other, one (usually the first) should be spelled out to avoid confusion

(1)

First number

(1)

Second number

(1)

Avoid beginning a sentence with a number; if you must use a number to begin a sentence, spell it out

(1)

Start of sentence

(1)

Years

(1)

Citation

(1)

Use numerals for statute, volume, chapter, section, and subsection numbers; in tables; in dates and times; for money; with units of measurement; in decimals; and in names of roads, military divisions, and the like

(1)

Count and series

(1)

Exceptions for names

(1)

Other exceptions

(1)

Spell out a large number that is used as an exaggeration or an idiomatic phrase

(1)

Exactness not implied

(1)

In slogans

(1)

For a number in the millions or more (especially if precision is not required), round it off and spell out million, billion, etc.

(1)

Comprehension

(1)

Rounding off

(1)

Dollar sign and word

(1)

When precision counts

(1)

In legal citations, spell the ordinal numerals 2d and 3d, not 2nd and 3rd

(1)

Legal convention

(1)

General convention

(1)

Be careful not to allow any ambiguity when writing numbers

(1)

``K'' and ``M''

(1)

Billion and larger

(1)

Use a comma to separate large whole-number digits into sets of three, from the right, but do not use commas in room numbers, telephone numbers, highway numbers, military time, years, or other serial numbers, or in page numbers shorter than five digits

(1)

For thousands

(1)

Exceptions

(1)

Page numbers

(1)

Not in decimals

(1)

Use an en-dash (or a hyphen) to signal an inclusive range of numbers; do not use the words from or between in front of numbers connected by an en-dash

(1)

Using ``from'' and ``between''

(1)

Avoiding multiple en-dashes

(1)

Word of measurement

(1)

Or hyphen

(1)

Be careful about using apostrophes with numbers

(1)

Plurals

(1)

Possessives

(1)

Elide to two digits the second number in a range of pages if the numbers are three or more digits long, but do not elide numbers in a range of sections or paragraphs, a range of measurements, or a span of years

(1)

Rules

(1)

Not with measurements

(1)

Sections and paragraphs

(1)

Not with years

(1)

Use the simplest appropriate forms for times, dates, and money

(1)

Unless needed for accuracy

(1)

Relative time references

(1)

When spelling out numbers, hyphenate only the two-word numbers below 100; do not use and except when expressing cents

(1)

Hyphen alone

(1)

With ``and''

(1)

Hyphenate spelled-out fractions unless one of the terms is itself hyphenated

(1)

Generally

(1)

Exception

(1)

Use Roman numerals sparingly and according to convention

(2)

Successors

(1)

Outlines

(1)

Front matter

(1)

Miscellaneous uses

(2)

Typographic Symbols

(4)

Overview

(1)

When referring to a specific section or paragraph number, use the symbol § (section) or ¶ (paragraph) in text and citations, unless the symbol would start a sentence

(1)

Legal convention

(1)

Beginning sentence

(1)

Pluralize some typographic symbols by doubling them. So when referring to two or more sections or paragraphs, use the double symbol §§ or ¶¶

In citations

100

(1)

Exception with subsections

100

(1)

Et seq.

100

(1)

Use the symbols $, ¢, %, and ° with numerals in text; spell out the words when used alone

100

(1)

Commonly understood

100

(1)

Spelling out

100

(1)

Range

100

(1)

Foot, inch marks

101

(1)

``At'' symbol

101

(1)

Use an ampersand in a business name, in a case citation, and in a citation to a work by two or more authors

101

(1)

In business names

101

(1)

In case names

101

(1)

With multiple authors

102

(1)

Do not use a trademark or copyright symbol in text

102

(1)

Purpose

102

(1)

Significance

102

(1)

102

(1)

Spelling

103

(20)

Overview

103

(1)

General Principles

103

(1)

Always use your computer's spell-checker, but never rely on it alone

103

(1)

Generally

103

(1)

Self-check

103

(1)

Proofreaders

103

(1)

Autocorrection

103

(1)

Use an up-to-date dictionary; preferably, everyone in an organization should use the same one

104

(1)

Current edition

104

(1)

Uniformity

104

(1)

Keep a list of the words you have trouble with; update it regularly and keep it handy

104

(1)

Troublesome words

104

(1)

Ease of reference

104

(1)

Know the elementary spelling rules

104

(1)

``I'' before ``e''

104

(1)

Silent ``-e'' and suffixes

104

(1)

``-y'' ending and suffixes

105

(1)

Doubling consonants

105

(1)

``-ic'' ending and suffixes

105

(1)

Avoid hyphens with most prefixes and suffixes

105

(1)

Modern trend

105

(1)

Proper nouns

106

(1)

Hyphenated prefixes

106

(1)

For clarity

106

(1)

With numerals

106

(1)

Proper names

106

(1)

With hyphenated phrases

106

(1)

Suffixes

106

(1)

Plurals

106

(1)

Form the plural of most regular nouns by adding -s or -es

106

(1)

Basic rule

106

(1)

Sibilant endings

106

(1)

``-y'' ending

106

(1)

``-o'' ending

106

(1)

``-f'' or ``-fe'' ending

107

(1)

Irregular words

107

(1)

Proper names

107

(1)

Check the spelling of the plural forms of foreign terms; in most instances, prefer the anglicized form if one exists

107

(1)

``-is'' ending

107

(1)

``-um'' ending

107

(1)

``-us'' ending

107

(1)

``-a'' ending

108

(1)

``-on'' ending

108

(1)

``-ex'' or ``-ix'' ending

108

(1)

``-eau'' ending

108

(1)

Retained forms

108

(1)

In general, form the plural of a compound noun by pluralizing the main element

108

(1)

Equivalents

108

(1)

Noun and modifier

108

(1)

Noun and particle

108

(1)

Verb and particle

109

(1)

Particle first

109

(1)

``-ful'' ending

109

(1)

Follow a consistent style in forming the plurals of letters, words used as words (rather than for their meaning), numbers, and abbreviations

109

(1)

Letters

109

(1)

Words as words

109

(1)

Numbers

109

(1)

Initialisms

109

(1)

Abbreviations

109

(1)

Citations

109

(1)

Measurements

109

(1)

Possessives

110

(1)

Add -'s to the end of a word to form the possessive of (1) a singular noun, or (2) a plural noun that does not end in an s or z sound (always an irregular plural)

110

(1)

Basic rule

110

(1)

Sibilant endings

110

(1)

Names

110

(1)

Test

110

(1)

Ancient names

110

(1)

Singular name, plural form

110

(1)

``For---sake''

110

(1)

Grocer's apostrophe

110

(1)

Add an apostrophe to the end of a word to form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in an s or z sound

111

(1)

Basic rule

111

(1)

Exception

111

(1)

Do not use apostrophes with possessive pronouns or who

111

(1)

Confused with contractions

111

(1)

Simple test

111

(1)

With phrases, form the possessive on the last word

111

(1)

Last word

111

(1)

Contrasted with compound plurals

111

(1)

Precenting awkwardness

111

(1)

Use the same rules for numbers and abbreviations

111

(1)

Number examples

111

(1)

Abbreviation examples

111

(1)

Compounds

112

(1)

Overview

112

(1)

A compound formed by two nouns of equal importance is likely to be closed

112

(1)

Pronunciation clue

112

(1)

Evolving use

112

(1)

Human suffixes

112

(1)

The combination of an adjective and a noun is usually open

113

(1)

Generally

113

(1)

Distinct meaning

113

(1)

Combine words of equal importance with an en-dash

113

(1)

Duality

113

(1)

Measurement

113

(1)

Hyphen acceptable

113

(1)

When a noun is joined with a preceding preposition or adverb, the compound is usually closed

113

(1)

Independent meaning

113

(1)

No independent meaning

113

(1)

When a noun is joined to a gerund, it is usually hyphenated

113

(1)

Temporary terms

113

(1)

Permanent terms

113

(1)

Closed terms

113

(1)

Open terms

114

(1)

When a verb is coupled with a preposition or adverb, it is open, but a noun derived from the same form is either closed (usually) or hyphenated

114

(1)

Phrasal verbs

114

(1)

As closed nouns

114

(1)

Short particles

114

(1)

When a verb is joined to a preceding preposition or adverb, the resulting word is closed; words formed this way do not serve as nouns

114

(1)

Effect of closing

114

(1)

Noun formation

114

(1)

A verb formed from a compound noun often takes the same form as the noun

115

(1)

Closed

115

(1)

Hyphenated

115

(1)

Adjective-noun phrase

115

(1)

For many other terms, no reliable principles apply; use a current dictionary to check the spelling

115

(1)

Possessive noun-noun

115

(1)

Agent noun

115

(1)

Verb-particle

115

(1)

Longer phrases

115

(1)

Letter plus noun

115

(1)

American vs. British Spelling

115

(1)

Be aware of variations in American and British spelling. For the most part, the differences fall into one of several categories

115

(2)

Scope

115

(1)

``-ize'' vs. ``-ise''

116

(1)

``-or'' vs. ``-our''

116

(1)

Doubling the final ``-l''

116

(1)

``-er'' vs. ``-re''

117

(1)

``-dge'' words

117

(1)

Hyphenated forms

117

(1)

``-ogue'' words

117

(1)

Miscellaneous

118

Common Misspellings

117

(1)

Be wary of common misspellings. Below are the correct spellings of the most frequently misspelled words in the language

118

(5)

Citations

123

(12)

Overview

123

(1)

Choose a citation system and stick to its essential conventions throughout a particular writing

123

(1)

The Bluebook

123

(1)

ALWD

123

(1)

Maroonbook

123

(1)

State style manuals

124

(1)

If court rules, journal guidelines, or any other directives conflict with the citation system you use, follow the directives

124

(1)

Courts

124

(1)

Law journals

124

(1)

Learn the fundamental rules of how to cite authority. But don't get so lost in the minutiae that you forget why they exist: to help the reader check your research

124

(1)

Basics

124

(1)

Trivia and nonsense

125

(1)

Cite the record unobtrusively

125

(1)

Basics

125

(1)

Page and line

125

(1)

Overcitation

125

(1)

Choose which precedents to cite based on authority, hierarchy, freshness, and clarity of reasoning. Avoid string citations

125

(1)

Authority

125

(1)

Hierarchy

125

(1)

Freshness

125

(1)

Reasoning

125

(1)

Number of citations

126

(1)

No controlling authority

126

(1)

Use abbreviations as required by your citation system in the first full citation

126

(1)

First citation

126

(1)

Lists

126

(1)

Use short-form citations after the first full citation

126

(1)

Clarity

126

(1)

Distinctive name

126

(1)

Use pinpoint citations when quoting, paraphrasing, or referring to a specific part of an opinion

127

(1)

Purpose

127

(1)

Pinpoint citation to first page

127

(1)

Paragraphs

127

(1)

Credibility

127

(1)

Use id. carefully

127

(1)

Function of ``id''

127

(1)

Multiple authorities

127

(1)

And ``ibid''

127

(1)

Avoid infra, supra, op. cit., loc. cit., and similar abbreviations to refer to a citation that appears elsewhere in the writing

128

(1)

Definitions

128

(1)

Footnotes

128

(1)

Law reviews

128

(1)

When citing sequential pages, sections, paragraphs, or similar elements, use an en-dash to elide the numerals. If you elide page numbers of three or more digits, always show two digits after the en-dash

128

(1)

When citing a concurring, dissenting, en banc, or plurality opinion, include the type of opinion in parentheses immediately after the court and year but before any other parenthetical information. Identify the author of a concurrence or dissent

128

(1)

Plurality opinion

128

(1)

Concurrence or dissent

129

(1)

Unsigned opinion

129

(1)

Full-court hearing

129

(1)

Space parenthetical explanations or quotations correctly in relation to the rest of the citation

129

(1)

Spacing

129

(1)

Punctuation

129

(1)

If parenthetical matter is given with a citation, it should appear before the subsequent history

130

(1)

History

130

(1)

Additional citation

130

(1)

Use the correct signal to show the relationship between a textual statement and the material cited

130

(2)

Basics

130

(1)

Older legal materials

131

(1)

Modern resources

131

(1)

Undefined signals

132

(1)

Order of use

132

(1)

Do what you reasonably can to condense citations

132

(1)

Abbreviations

132

(1)

Short-form citations

132

(1)

Redundancy

132

(1)

Avoid parallel citations unless local rules require them

132

(1)

Generally

132

(1)

Punctuation

132

(1)

Undesirability

132

(1)

Use a parenthetical note if an explanation would explain how the citation supports the argument

132

(1)

Clarification

132

(1)

Multiple sources

133

(1)

Specificity

133

(1)

Obscurity

133

(1)

Form

133

(1)

Never trust the citations in another document. Always verify from original sources

133

(1)

Electronic shortcomings

133

(1)

Inaccurate information

134

(1)

Older legal materials

134

(1)

Sanctions

134

(1)

Before you submit your writing to anyone else, double-check your citations to ensure that the citation form and subsequent history are correct

134

(1)

Updates

134

(1)

Proper authorities

134

(1)

If no legal-citation manual explains how to cite some material, such as an electronic or Internet source, consult a current nonlegal style manual

134

(1)

Nonlegal style

134

(1)

Clarity

134

(1)

Footnotes

135

(8)

Overview

135

(1)

Follow whatever prescriptions are set down in court rules, journal guidelines, or any other controlling directives

135

(1)

Court rules

135

(1)

Law reviews

135

(1)

Set footnotes in smaller type than the text, and single-space them

135

(1)

Font

135

(1)

Type size

135

(1)

Use sequential numbering for footnotes throughout most documents

136

(1)

Documents and articles

136

(1)

Books and treatises

136

(1)

Arabic numerals

136

(1)

Put the superscript footnote number after all punctuation marks except a dash and, sometimes, a closing parenthesis

136

(1)

Quotation marks

136

(1)

Dash

136

(1)

Parentheses

136

(1)

Never use more than one superscript in the same place

137

(1)

Lack of clarity

137

(1)

Contrary information

137

(1)

Consolidate multiple sources into one footnote when possible

137

(1)

Full support

137

(1)

Paragraph footnotes

138

(1)

Distinctions

138

(1)

Never use footnotes to evade page-limit restrictions

138

(1)

Ethics

138

(1)

Sanctions

138

(1)

Minimize substantive footnotes

139

(4)

Distracting and tiresome

139

(1)

Bad reactions

139

(1)

Ignoring arguments in footnotes

139

(4)

Part 2: Grammar, Usage, and Editing

Grammar

143

(40)

Overview

143

(1)

Nouns

143

(1)

Overview

143

(1)

Ensure that related nouns agree in number

144

(1)

Concrete nouns

144

(1)

Abstract nouns

144

(1)

Indicate joint possession by making only the final noun in the series possessive; indicate separate possession by making each noun in a series possessive

144

(1)

Joint possession

144

(1)

Individual possession

144

(1)

Use the possessive case with a noun when the sense is a measurement of time or value, but consider recasting the sentence with a phrasal adjective instead

144

(1)

As measurement

144

(1)

Old-fashioned

145

(1)

Use the double-possessive construction (of---'s) with a noun to shift perspective to the object: the focus is on the object's relationship to the subject of the preposition, not the other way around

145

(1)

Redundancy

145

(1)

To avoid ambiguity

145

(1)

Reword

145

(1)

Ensure that an appositive agrees with and directly follows the noun or noun phrase that it identifies or supplements; if it is nonrestrictive, set it off with commas, parentheses, or em-dashes

145

(1)

Defined

145

(1)

Agreement

146

(1)

If nonrestrictive

146

(1)

Be careful about irregular plurals

146

(1)

Irregular forms

146

(1)

Romance syntax

147

(1)

Foreign terms

147

(1)

Same form

147

(1)

Confused singulars

147

(1)

Pronouns

147

(1)

Overview

147

(1)

Make the grammatical antecedent of a pronoun the noun that (1) precedes the pronoun most closely, and (2) agrees in number, gender, and person with that pronoun

148

(3)

Number

148

(1)

Generally

148

(1)

From antecedent

148

(1)

Conjunctive compound antecedent

148

(1)

Disjunctive compound antecedent

148

(1)

Disjunctive with mixed antecedents

149

(1)

Two or more adjectives

149

(1)

Singular indefinite pronoun

149

(1)

Plural indefinite pronoun

149

(1)

Other indefinite pronouns

149

(1)

Collective nouns

150

(1)

Relative pronouns

150

(1)

Gender

150

(1)

Generally

150

(1)

Third-person singular

150

(1)

Gender-neutral masculine

150

(1)

Singular ``they''

151

(1)

Neuter by default

151

(1)

Person

151

(1)

Generally

151

(1)

Distinguished

151

(1)

Make pronoun references unambiguous

151

(1)

Multiple antecedents

151

(1)

Repeated pronoun

152

(1)

Explicit antecedent

152

(1)

Noun antecedent

152

(1)

Antecedent first

152

(1)

Use the nominative case for a subject or a predicate nominative

152

(1)

Generally

152

(1)

As predicate nominative

152

(1)

As subject of dependent clause

153

(1)

Use the objective case for (1) the direct or indirect object of a verb, or (2) the object of a preposition

153

(1)

Generally

153

(1)

Determined by function

153

(1)

Use the correct case and order when using a first-person pronoun with a noun or another personal pronoun in a compound phrase

153

(1)

First person last

153

(1)

Hypercorrection in first person

153

(1)

In formal writing, use the nominative case after than if the pronoun would be nominative in the understood clause that follows than

154

(1)

As a conjunction

154

(1)

As a preposition

154

(1)

In formal writing, use the nominative case for a pronoun used as a predicate nominative, renaming the subject after a linking verb

154

(1)

Formal usage

154

(1)

Informal usages

154

(1)

Use the possessive case of a pronoun to show ownership, attribution, measure, or some similar relationship

155

(1)

Generally

155

(1)

No apostrophe

155

(1)

Absolute possessives

155

(1)

With a gerund

155

(1)

Use the double-possessive construction (of + absolute possessive) with personal pronouns

155

(1)

Mandatory with pronouns

155

(1)

To intensify

155

(1)

Use the relative pronoun who to refer to people only (although whose may refer to things as well); which to refer to things or animals only; and that to refer to either people or things (or both)

156

(1)

``That'' with people

156

(1)

``Which'' with things

156

(1)

``Whose'' with things

156

(1)

For relative pronouns referring to anything other than people, use that to introduce a restrictive clause and which (after a comma) to introduce a nonrestrictive clause

156

(2)

Restrictive clause

156

(1)

Nonrestrictive clause

157

(1)

``That'' as restrictive

157

(1)

``Which'' as nonrestrictive

157

(1)

No commas with restrictive clauses

158

(1)

Use reflexive and reciprocal pronouns with care

158

(1)

Reflexive for objective

158

(1)

When object is also subject

158

(1)

When subject is repeated for emphasis

158

(1)

``Each other'' and ``one another''

158

(1)

Verbs

158

(1)

Overview

158

(2)

Use a singular verb after a singular subject

160

(2)

Generally

160

(1)

Distractions

160

(1)

Dependent clauses

160

(1)

Compound but singular in meaning

161

(1)

Compound referring to one thing

161

(1)

Illusory compounds

161

(1)

Idioms with indefinite pronouns

161

(1)

Idioms with ``each'' and ``every''

161

(1)

Idiom with ``many a''

162

(1)

Phrases of measurement

162

(1)

Use a plural verb after a plural subject

162

(1)

Generally

162

(1)

Conjunctive compound

162

(1)

With ``each'' in apposition

162

(1)

Plural indefinite pronouns

162

(1)

With class adjectives

162

(1)

Plural-form nouns

163

(1)

With certain types of subjects, use the context of the sentence to determine whether a singular or plural verb is required

163

(2)

With count nouns

163

(1)

With collective nouns

163

(1)

With singular-form nouns

164

(1)

With foreign nouns

164

(1)

With ``-ics'' words

164

(1)

In relative clauses

164

(1)

If the subject is a disjunctive compound (joined by or or nor), the verb should agree with the element of the compound closest to the verb; if the compound contains both singular and plural elements, try to place the plural subject closest to the verb

165

(1)

With singular subjects

165

(1)

Singular in meaning

165

(1)

With mixed elements

165

(1)

Plural element last

165

(1)

Minimize the passive voice

165

(2)

Recognizing it

165

(1)

Editing it

166

(1)

When it's appropriate

166

(1)

Use the subjunctive mood to express a wish, a demand, a requirement, an exhortation, or a statement contrary to fact---as well as in a number of fixed idioms

167

(1)

Generally

167

(1)

``That''-clause of need

167

(1)

Expressing a wish

167

(1)

Exhortations and things contrary to fact

167

(1)

In fixed idioms

168

(1)

Connect every participial phrase to its subject

168

(1)

At start of sentence

168

(1)

Close to subject

168

(1)

Misplaced and dangling modifiers

168

(1)

In a compound predicate, if an auxiliary verb grammatically matches all the main verbs, omit it after its first use

169

(1)

Style benefits

169

(1)

Parallel constructions

169

(1)

Use the past tense to describe what a court did in a particular case. Otherwise, when discussing the law, generally use the present tense

169

(1)

Present tense as default

169

(1)

Past tense for case history

169

(1)

Adjectives

170

(1)

Overview

170

(1)

Use the comparative form as a measure of quality between two things and the superlative form as a measure of quality among three or more

171

(1)

Regular forms

171

(1)

Irregular forms

171

(1)

With ``more-most,'' ``less-least''

171

(1)

Class comparison

171

(1)

Double comparatives

171

(1)

Use an adjective, not an adverb, as a subject complement (predicate adjective) after a be-verb or other linking verb, a verb of perception, or a verb of becoming

172

(1)

With linking verbs

172

(1)

With verbs of sense or becoming

172

(1)

Don't use an adverb of comparison with an absolute adjective

172

(1)

No qualifiers

172

(1)

``Almost'' and ``nearly''

172

(1)

Use dates as adjectives sparingly

172

(1)

Full dates as adjectives

172

(1)

Short dates as adjectives

172

(1)

In some phrases and idiomatic constructions, use an adjective after the word it modifies

173

(1)

Legal terms

173

(1)

Pronouns

173

(1)

Stilted phrasing

173

(1)

Use the definite article the to signal a specific person, place, or thing; use the indefinite article a or an to signal a generic reference

173

(1)

Placement

173

(1)

Deciding between ``a'' and ``an''

173

(1)

Adverbs

173

(1)

Overview

173

(1)

Place an adverb in its strongest position, often at the beginning of a sentence or inside a verb phrase

174

(1)

After first auxiliary

174

(1)

Split infinitive

175

(1)

Temporal adverbs

175

(1)

Contrast at start of sentence

175

(1)

Emphasis at end of sentence

175

(1)

Place emphatic adverbs such as only, so, very, quite, and just immediately before whatever they modify

175

(1)

Placement of ``only''

175

(1)

Idiomatic placement

176

(1)

Prepositions

176

(1)

Overview

176

(1)

To combat verbosity, minimize prepositional phrases

176

(2)

Buried verbs

176

(1)

One-word replacements

177

(1)

Active voice

177

(1)

As a cause of bloat

177

(1)

When possible, omit a repeated preposition or object in favor of a compound construction, but don't if the omission would make the construction unparallel

178

(1)

Compound object

178

(1)

Ambiguity

178

(1)

Compound prepositions

178

(1)

Conjunctions

178

(1)

Overview

178

(1)

Use a coordinating conjunction to join like elements

178

(1)

Definition

178

(1)

Punctuation

179

(1)

When appropriate, use a coordinating conjunction to begin a sentence to emphasize contrast (but, yet), additional support for a proposition (and), an alternative (or), or a logical conclusion (so)

179

(1)

Start of sentence

179

(1)

Stuffiness

179

(1)

Use a subordinating conjunction to join a dependent clause to the main clause of a complex sentence

179

(1)

Definition

179

(1)

To show relationships

180

(1)

Make sure that correlative conjunctions frame sentence parts that match each other grammatically

180

(1)

Definition

180

(1)

Parallelism

180

(1)

Interjections

181

(1)

Use interjections sparingly, if at all

181

(2)

Definition

181

(1)

Limited use

181

(2)

Stuffy Words and Legalese

183

(28)

Overview

183

(1)

Use the simplest, most straightforward words that you can

183

(11)

Plain English

183

(1)

Simple substitutes

183

(4)

Paring down phrases

187

(3)

Avoiding legalese

190

(2)

Useless verbiage

192

(1)

Synonymia

192

(2)

Unless the context requires otherwise, use legal terms according to their specialized sense as terms of art

194

(17)

Terms of art---Latin

194

(1)

Terms of art---ordinary words with special legal senses

194

(17)

Troublesome Words

211

(108)

Overview

211

(1)

Use words correctly and precisely

211

(1)

Correctness

211

(1)

Precision

211

(1)

Consult this glossary to find the correct uses of problematic expressions---words and phrases that are sometimes misused in legal writing

212

(67)

Use the correct preposition for the meaning you intend

279

(32)

Idiomatic phrasing

279

(1)

List of prepositional pairings

279

(32)

Avoid needlessly offending readers with your word choice

311

(8)

Characteristics

311

(1)

Professional conduct

311

(1)

Ineffective advocacy

311

(1)

Unwarranted distinctions

312

(1)

Person, not characteristic

312

(1)

Labels

312

(1)

Euphemisms

313

(1)

Equivalence

313

(1)

Slang

314

(1)

Jargon

314

(1)

False friends

314

(1)

Suitability

314

(1)

Capitalization

315

(1)

Gender-neutral language

315

(1)

Titles

316

(1)

Gender-specific language

317

(1)

Age references

317

(1)

Sexual orientation

318

(1)

Religious references

318

(1)

Editing and Proofreading

319

(6)

Review your work closely and systematically to improve the style

319

(1)

Two readings necessary---three desirable

319

(1)

Worsening the piece

319

(1)

Habitually ask yourself the six Orwellian questions

319

(1)

Orwell's questions

319

(1)

Applicability to editing

319

(1)

Tighten the style by ridding the draft of verbosity

320

(1)

Tightening generally

320

(1)

Minimizing the passive voice

320

(1)

Uncovering buried verbs

320

(1)

Trimming prepositional phrases

320

(1)

Replacing wordy phrases

320

(1)

Sharpen the writing by reducing abstractions

320

(1)

Sharpening generally

320

(1)

Nouns and verbs

321

(1)

Try a phased approach in editing, making several passes through the document: begin with large, structural edits: then make basic sentence-level edits; then look for subtler sentence-level edits: finally, polish the piece for clarity

321

(1)

Systematic approach

321

(1)

Stage one: macro edits

321

(1)

Stage two: basic micro edits

321

(1)

Stage three: advanced micro edits

322

(1)

Stage four: polishing

322

(1)

Learn and use the standard proofreaders' marks

322

(3)

The necessity of editing on paper

322

(1)

The value of standard marks

322

(1)

List of proofreaders' marks

322

(3)

Part 3: Preparing Legal Documents

Business Correspondence

325

(8)

Understand the main goals of business correspondence

325

(1)

Communicating effectively

325

(1)

Making an impression

325

(1)

Providing a record

325

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your correspondence

Being reader-friendly

326

(1)

Projecting your personality

326

(1)

Exuding professionalism

326

(1)

Avoid the common faults of business correspondence

326

(1)

Lacking focus

326

(1)

Making multiple requests

326

(1)

Using inappropriate style

326

(1)

Blundering

327

(1)

Hiding information

327

(1)

Omitting information

327

(1)

Use a standard format for business letters

327

(2)

Modified block style

327

(1)

Date

327

(1)

Margins and type

328

(1)

Titles

328

(1)

Subject line

328

(1)

Appropriate salutation

328

(1)

The corporate and legal ``we''

328

(1)

Complimentary closes

329

(1)

Modifying your identification as appropriate

329

(1)

Copies

329

(1)

Study effective business correspondence

329

(4)

Recommended books

329

(1)

Examples

329

(4)

Case Briefs

333

(6)

Understand the main goals of a case brief

333

(1)

Generally

333

(1)

Orderly format

333

(1)

Critical thinking

333

(1)

Comprehension

333

(1)

Time management

334

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your case brief

334

(1)

Preparing to answer questions

334

(1)

Mastering a new development in the law

334

(1)

Finding an argument for your client

334

(1)

Building a foundation for your research

334

(1)

Avoid the common faults of case briefs

334

(2)

Accepting the court's opinion as gospel

334

(1)

Mistaking dicta for law

335

(1)

Writing without reading the case thoroughly

335

(1)

Skimping on the court's reasoning

335

(1)

Including too much detail

335

(1)

Using weak briefing methods

335

(1)

Ignoring concurrences and dissents

336

(1)

Study effective case briefs

336

(3)

Guidance

336

(1)

Examples

336

(3)

Research Memos

339

(14)

Understand the main goals of a research memo

339

(1)

Generally

339

(1)

To help readers

339

(1)

To summarize issue

339

(1)

To anticipate problems

340

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your research memo

340

(1)

Needs of the assigning attorney

340

(1)

Needs of the client

340

(1)

Need for more research

340

(1)

Avoid the common faults of research memos

340

(2)

Not summarizing up front

340

(1)

Parroting an ill-phrased question

341

(1)

Using surface issues

341

(1)

Waffling in the answer

341

(1)

Meandering

342

(1)

Losing focus

342

(1)

Beginning with lengthy facts

342

(1)

Omitting headings

342

(1)

Overquoting

342

(1)

Citing poorly

343

Study effective research memos

342

(11)

Where to find them

342

(1)

Examples

342

(11)

Opinion Letters

353

(14)

Understand the main goals of an opinion letter

353

(1)

Purpose

353

(1)

Format

353

(1)

Answering the question

353

(1)

Alternatives

354

(1)

Limitations

354

(1)

Who may issue the opinion

354

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your opinion letter

354

(1)

Particular client with particular needs

354

(1)

Written vs. oral opinion

355

(1)

Legal effects

355

(1)

Avoid the common faults of opinion letters

355

(1)

Failing to answer the question

355

(1)

Trying to use a formula

355

(1)

Leaping to a conclusion

356

(1)

Study effective opinion letters

356

(11)

Review good examples

356

(1)

Drafting guidance

356

(1)

Examples

356

(11)

Demand Letters

367

(8)

Understand the main goals of a demand letter

367

(1)

Gauging the reader

367

(1)

Meeting statutory requirements

367

(1)

Documenting efforts to resolve the dispute

367

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your demand letter

367

(2)

Strategy

367

(1)

Specificity and tone

368

(1)

Allowing an independent assessment

368

(1)

Collection letters

368

(1)

Deciding on the recipient

368

(1)

Sending the letter

369

(1)

Avoid the common faults of demand letters

369

(1)

Typical shortcomings

369

(1)

Two caveats

369

(1)

Study effective demand letters

369

(6)

Collect good examples

369

(1)

Examples

370

(5)

Affidavits and Declarations

375

(8)

Understand the main goals of an affidavit

375

(1)

Terminology

375

(1)

General purposes

375

(1)

Basic format

375

(1)

Presenting evidence

375

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your affidavit

376

(1)

Purpose

376

(1)

Helping the reader make a decision

376

(1)

Avoid the common faults of affidavits

376

(1)

Failing to show personal knowledge

376

(1)

Using stiff, unnatural language

376

(1)

Using third person instead of first

376

(1)

Clinging to archaic legalisms

377

(1)

Rambling

377

(1)

Tweaking or ``improving'' facts

377

(1)

Neglecting to label an evidentiary affidavit as an exhibit

377

(1)

Follow rules of evidence

377

(1)

Admissibility

377

(1)

Hearsay

377

(1)

Expert witness

378

(1)

Standard for expert testimony

378

(1)

Writings, business records, photographs, things

378

(1)

Study effective affidavits

378

(5)

Guidance

378

(1)

Examples

378

(5)

Pleadings

383

(8)

Understand the main goals of a pleading

383

(1)

What a pleading is

383

(1)

Complaints generally

383

(1)

Complaints in federal court

383

(1)

Answers

383

(1)

Focus the dispute

384

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your pleading

384

(1)

Protect your client's interests

384

(1)

Essential and additional claims

384

(1)

Answer

384

(1)

Available defenses

384

(1)

Avoid the common faults of pleadings

384

(2)

Violating pleading rules

384

(1)

Overpleading

385

(1)

Omissions in complaints

385

(1)

Omissions in answers

385

(1)

Reliance on boilerplate forms

386

(1)

Verbosity

386

(1)

Study effective pleadings

386

(5)

Model forms

386

(1)

Drafting guidance

386

(1)

Examples

386

(5)

Motions

391

(12)

Understand the main goals of a motion

391

(1)

Purpose

391

(1)

Strategic advantages

391

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your motion

391

(1)

Goals

391

(1)

Proposed order

391

(1)

Cross-motions

392

(1)

Avoid the common faults of motions

392

(1)

Violating rules

392

(1)

Not getting to the point

392

(1)

Overreliance on forms

392

(1)

Failing to cite authority

392

(1)

Incorrect or frivolous contents

393

(1)

Churning

393

(1)

Educating your adversary

393

(1)

Study effective motions

393

(10)

Models

393

(1)

Guidance

393

(1)

An example

393

(10)

Appellate Briefs

403

(32)

Understand the main goals of a brief

403

(1)

Purpose

403

(1)

Tone

403

(1)

Identify the issue

403

(1)

Pertinent facts

403

(1)

Standard of review and governing law

403

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your brief

404

(1)

Appellant (seeking reversal)

404

(1)

Appellee (seeking affirmance)

404

(1)

Client's interests

404

(1)

Your reputation

404

(1)

Avoid the common faults of briefs

405

(2)

Omitting the standard of review

405

(1)

Ignoring statutes and rules

405

(1)

Using a shotgun approach

405

(1)

Misstating facts

406

(1)

Misstating the law

406

(1)

Exhibiting disrespect

406

(1)

Relying on quotations

407

(1)

Failing to address weaknesses

407

(1)

Study effective briefs

407

(28)

Models

407

(1)

Guidance

407

(1)

An example

407

(28)

Judicial Opinions

435

(18)

Understand the main goals of a judicial opinion

435

(1)

Purposes

435

(1)

An extraordinary challenge

435

(1)

Write for as broad an audience as possible

435

(1)

Many possible readers

435

(1)

``Ordinary reader'' as a useful fiction

435

(1)

Develop a good protocol for working on opinions

436

(1)

Working habits

436

(1)

Deficiencies in law-clerk style

436

(1)

Advice to law clerks

436

(1)

Understand the paramount importance of style

437

(1)

Pure vs. impure

437

(1)

Only the necessary facts

437

(1)

Mandate

438

(1)

Avoid the common shortcomings of opinions

438

(1)

Verbosity

438

(1)

Wigmore's six complaints

439

(1)

Tone

439

(1)

Develop a sensible approach to concurrences

439

(1)

Origin of concurrences

439

(1)

Reasons for proliferation

439

(1)

A cynical view of Frankfurter

440

(1)

Concur with caution

440

(1)

Develop a sensible approach to dissent

440

(1)

Dissents generally

440

(1)

Purposes

440

(1)

The old view

440

(1)

The voice of a dissenter

441

(1)

Study effective judicial writing

441

(12)

Widely admired judicial writers

441

(1)

Books on judging

441

(1)

Guidance on judicial writing

442

(1)

Examples

442

(11)

Contracts

453

(18)

Understand the main goals of a contract

453

(1)

Creating a legal relationship

453

(1)

Making terms clear

453

(1)

Think about the specific goals of your contract

453

(1)

Accuracy, completeness, and precision

453

(1)

Protecting the client

453

(1)

Getting the deal done

454

(1)

Avoid the common faults of contracts

454

(2)

Patchwork style

454

(1)

Ambiguous ``shall''

454

(1)

Overreaching

454

(1)

Density

455

(1)

Awkward numbering

455

(1)

Uncritical use of forms

456

(1)

Legalese

456

(1)

Emphasis

456

(1)

Study effective contracts

456

(15)

Models

456

(1)

Guidance

456

(1)

Examples

456

(15)

Word Index

471

(20)

General Index

491

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The Redbook

The Redbook

9780314168917

0314168915

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