Gerard Tortora is Professor of Biology at Bergen Community College in Paramus, New Jersey, where he teaches human anatomy and physiology as well as microbiology. He received his bachelor’s degree in biology from Fairleigh Dickinson University and his master's degree in science education from Montclair State College. He has been a member of many professional organizations, including the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS). Gerard is the author of several best-selling science textbooks and laboratory manuals, a calling that often requires many additional hours per week beyond his teaching responsibilities. Nevertheless, he still makes time for four or five weekly aerobic workouts that include biking and running. He also enjoys attending college basketball and professional hockey games and performances at the Metropolitan Opera House.

Mark Nielsen is a Professor in the Department of Biology at the University of Utah. For the past 31 years he has taught anatomy, neuroanatomy, embryology, human dissection, comparative anatomy, and an anatomy teaching course to over 25,000 students. He has prepared and participated in hundreds of dissections of both humans and other vertebrate animals. All his courses incorporate a cadaver-based component to the training with an outstanding exposure to cadaver anatomy. He is a member of the American Association of Anatomists (AAA), the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS), and the American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA).
Mark has a passion for teaching anatomy and sharing his knowledge with his students. In addition to the many students to whom he has taught anatomy, he has trained and served as a mentor for over 1,200 students who have worked in his anatomy laboratory as teaching assistants. His concern for students and his teaching excellence have been acknowledged through numerous awards.

1 An Introduction to the Human Body 1

1.1 Anatomy Defined 2

1.2 Levels of Body Organization and Body Systems 3

1.3 Life Processes 9

1.4 Basic Anatomical Terminology 9

1.5 Body Cavities 14

1.6 Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants 18

1.7 The Human Body and Disease 19

1.8 Aging 20

1.9 Medical Imaging 20

1.10 Measuring the Human Body 23

Chapter Review and Resource Summary 23 / Critical Thinking Questions 25 / Answers to Figure Questions 25

2 Cells 26

2.1 A Generalized Cell 27

2.2 The Plasma Membrane 28

2.3 Cytoplasm 33

2.4 Nucleus 42

2.5 Cell Division 43

2.6 Cellular Diversity 51

2.7 Aging and Cells 52

Key Medical Terms Associated with Cells 54 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 54 / Critical Thinking Questions 56 / Answers to Figure Questions 57

3 Tissues 58

3.1 Types of Tissues 59

3.2 Cell Junctions 60

3.3 Comparison Between Epithelial and Connective Tissues 61

3.4 Epithelial Tissue 62

3.5 Connective Tissue 73

3.6 Membranes 85

3.7 Muscular Tissue 87

3.8 Nervous Tissue 89

3.9 Aging and Tissues 89

Key Medical Terms Associated with Tissues 90 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 90 / Critical Thinking Questions 92 / Answers to Figure Questions 93

4 Development 94

4.1 Principles of Development 95

4.2 Embryonic Period 96

4.3 Fetal Period 111

4.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 113

4.5 Labor 114

Key Medical Terms Associated with Development 115 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 116 / Critical Thinking Questions 117 / Answers to Figure Questions 117

5 The Integumentary System 118

5.1 Structure of the Skin 119

5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 127

5.3 Types of Skin 134

5.4 Functions of the Skin 135

5.5 Development of the Integumentary System 136

5.6 Aging and the Integumentary System 138

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Integumentary System 139 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 140 / Critical Thinking Questions 141 / Answers to Figure Questions 141

6 Bone Tissue 142

6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System 143

6.2 Types of Bones 143

6.3 Anatomy of a Bone 144

6.4 Bone Surface Markings 145

6.5 Histology of Bone Tissue 146

6.6 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 150

6.7 Bone Formation 151

6.8 Fractures 158

6.9 Exercise and Bone Tissue 161

6.10 Aging and Bone Tissue 161

6.11 Factors Affecting Bone Growth 161

Key Medical Terms Associated with Bone Tissue 163 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 163 / Critical Thinking Questions 165 / Answers to Figure Questions 165

7 The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton 166

7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 167

7.2 Skull 169

7.3 Hyoid Bone 196

7.4 Vertebral Column 197

7.5 Thorax 210

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Axial Skeleton 214 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 214 / Critical Thinking Questions 215 / Answers to Figure Questions 215

8 The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton 216

8.1 Skeleton of the Upper Limb 217

8.2 Skeleton of the Lower Limb 230

8.3 False and True Pelves 235

8.4 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 236

8.5 Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles 236

8.6 Development of the Skeletal System 246

Key Medical Terms Associated with Appendicular Skeleton 248 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 248 / Critical Thinking Questions 249 / Answers to Figure Questions 249

9 Joints 250

9.1 Joint Classifications 251

9.2 Fibrous Joints 252

9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 253

9.4 Synovial Joints 254

9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 256

9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 261

9.7 Factors Affecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 264

9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 265

9.9 Aging and Joints 281

Key Medical Terms Associated with Joints 283 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 283 / Critical Thinking Questions 284 / Answers to Figure Questions 285

10 Muscular Tissue 286

10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 287

10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Structure 288

10.3 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Function 296

10.4 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 303

10.5 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 305

10.6 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 305

10.7 Smooth Muscle Tissue 307

10.8 Development of Muscles 309

10.9 Aging and Muscular Tissue 310

Key Medical Terms Associated with Muscular Tissue 310 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 310 / Critical Thinking Questions 312 / Answers to Figure Questions 313

11 The Muscular System 314

11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 315

11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 320

11.3 Principal Skeletal Muscles 320

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Muscular System 415 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 416 / Critical Thinking Questions 417 / Answers to Figure Questions 417

12 The Cardiovascular System: Blood 418

12.1 Functions of Blood 419

12.2 Physical Characteristics of Blood 419

12.3 Components of Blood 419

12.4 Formation of Blood Cells 422

12.5 Red Blood Cells 425

12.6 White Blood Cells 428

12.7 Platelets 430

12.8 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow and Cord-Blood 431

Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood 432 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 433 / Critical Thinking Questions 434 / Answers to Figure Questions 434

13 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart 435

13.1 Location and Surface Projection of the Heart 436

13.2 Structure and Function of the Heart 438

13.3 Circulation of Blood 447

13.4 Cardiac Conduction System and Innervation 451

13.5 Cardiac Cycle (Heartbeat) 453

13.6 Heart Sounds 453

13.7 Exercise and the Heart 454

13.8 Development of the Heart 458

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Heart 460 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 460 / Critical Thinking Questions 462 / Answers to Figure Questions 462

14 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels 463

14.1 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 464

14.2 Circulatory Routes—Systemic Circulation 472

14.3 Circulatory Routes—Hepatic Portal Circulation 511

14.4 Circulatory Routes—Pulmonary Circulation 512

14.5 Circulatory Routes—Fetal Circulation 513

14.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 515

14.7 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 516

Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood Vessels 517 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 518 / Critical Thinking Questions 519 / Answers to Figure Questions 519

15 The Lymphatic (Lymphoid) System and Immunity 520

15.1 The Concept of Immunity 521

15.2 Lymphatic System Structure and Functions 521

15.3 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 523

15.4 Lymphatic Organs and Tissues 526

15.5 Principal Groups of Lymph Nodes 531

15.6 Development of Lymphatic Tissues 542

15.7 Aging and the Lymphatic System 542

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Lymphatic System and Immunity 544 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 544 / Critical Thinking Questions 545 / Answers to Figure Questions 545

16 Nervous Tissue 546

16.1 Overview of the Nervous System 547

16.2 Histology and Functions of Neurons 548

16.3 Histology and Function of Neuroglia 555

16.4 Neural Circuits 558

16.5 Regeneration and Neurogenesis 560

Key Medical Terms Associated with Nervous Tissue 560 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 561 / Critical Thinking Questions 562 / Answers to Figure Questions 562

17 The Spinal Cord and the Spinal Nerves 563

17.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 564

17.2 Spinal Nerves 569

17.3 Spinal Cord Functions 584

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Spinal Cord and the Spinal Nerves 586 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 587 / Critical Thinking Questions 588 / Answers to Figure Questions 588

18 The Brain and the Cranial Nerves 589

18.1 Development and General Structure of the Brain 590

18.2 Protection and Blood Supply 593

18.3 The Brainstem and Reticular Formation 599

18.4 The Cerebellum 604

18.5 The Diencephalon 604

18.6 The Cerebrum 608

18.7 Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 614

18.8 Aging and the Nervous System 618

18.9 Cranial Nerves 618

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Brain and the Cranial Nerves 633 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 633 / Critical Thinking Questions 635 / Answers to Figure Questions 635

19 The Autonomic Nervous System 636

19.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 637

19.2 Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways 639

19.3 Structure of the Sympathetic Division 643

19.4 Structure of the Parasympathetic Division 646

19.5 ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors 650

19.6 Functions of the ANS 651

19.7 Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions 655

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Autonomic Nervous System 655 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 656 / Critical Thinking Questions 657 / Answers to Figure Questions 657

20 Somatic Senses and Motor Control 658

20.1 Overview of Sensations 659

20.2 Somatic Sensations 660

20.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways 666

20.4 Somatic Motor Pathways 669

20.5 Integration of Sensory Input and Motor Output 675

Key Medical Terms Associated with Somatic Senses and Motor Control 675 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 675 / Critical Thinking Questions 677 / Answers to Figure Questions 677

21 Special Senses 678

21.1 Olfaction: Sense of Smell 679

21.2 Gustation: Sense of Taste 681

21.3 Vision 683

21.4 Hearing and Equilibrium 693

21.5 Development of the Eyes and Ears 707

21.6 Aging and the Special Senses 709

Key Medical Terms Associated with Special Senses 709 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 710 / Critical Thinking Questions 711 / Answers to Figure Questions 711

22 The Endocrine System 712

22.1 Endocrine Glands Defined 713

22.2 Hormones 713

22.3 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 715

22.4 Pineal Gland and Thymus 719

22.5 Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands 720

22.6 Adrenal Glands 723

22.7 Pancreas 726

22.8 Ovaries and Testes 728

22.9 Other Endocrine Tissues 729

22.10 Development of the Endocrine System 730

22.11 Aging and the Endocrine System 731

Key Medical Terms Associated with the EndocrineSystem 732 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 732 / Critical Thinking Questions 734 / Answers to Figure Questions 734

23 The Respiratory System 735

23.1 Respiratory System Anatomy 736

23.2 Upper Respiratory System Anatomy 736

23.3 Lower Respiratory System Anatomy 741

23.4 Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing) 757

23.5 Regulation of Breathing 758

23.6 Exercise and the Respiratory System 761

23.7 Development of the Respiratory System 762

23.8 Aging and the Respiratory System 763

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Respiratory System 763 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 764 / Critical Thinking Questions 765 / Answers to Figure Questions 765

24 The Digestive System 766

24.1 Overview of the Digestive System 767

24.2 Layers of the GI Tract 768

24.3 Peritoneum 770

24.4 Mouth 772

24.5 Pharynx 779

24.6 Esophagus 779

24.7 Stomach 781

24.8 Pancreas 786

24.9 Liver and Gallbladder 788

24.10 Small Intestine 793

24.11 Large Intestine 800

24.12 Development of the Digestive System 805

24.13 Aging and the Digestive System 806

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Digestive System 806 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 807 / Critical Thinking Questions 809 / Answers to Figure Questions 809

25 The Urinary System 810

25.1 Overview of the Urinary System 811

25.2 Anatomy of the Kidneys 813

25.3 The Nephron 817

25.4 Functions of Nephrons 822

25.5 Urine Transportation, Storage, and Elimination 825

25.6 Development of the Urinary System 831

25.7 Aging and the Urinary System 832

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Urinary System 832 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 833 / Critical Thinking Questions 834 / Answers to Figure Questions 834

26 The Reproductive Systems 835

26.1 Male Reproductive System 836

26.2 Female Reproductive System 849

26.3 Female Reproductive Cycle 866

26.4 Birth Control Methods and Abortion 870

26.5 Development of the Reproductive Systems 872

26.6 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 874

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Reproductive Systems 875 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 876 / Critical Thinking Questions 878 / Answers to Figure Questions 878

27 Surface Anatomy 880

27.1 Overview of Surface Anatomy 881

Chapter Review and Resource Summary 903 / Critical Thinking Questions 904 / Answers to Figure Questions 904

Appendix A Measurements A-1

Appendix B Answers A-2

Glossary G-1

Index I-1

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