Henning Reetz is Professor of Phonology and Phonetics in the Department of Empirical Linguistics at the Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany. He has published extensively on acoustic and auditory phonetics, and is actively pursuing research on Automatic Speech Recognition.

Allard Jongman is a Professor in the Linguistics Department at the University of Kansas, USA and Co-Director of the University of Kansas Phonetics and Psycholinguistics Laboratory (KUPPL). Dr Jongman has published extensively on acoustic and auditory phonetics in a variety of languages and he is a Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America.

Preface to the First Edition xi

Preface to the Second Edition xiii

About the Companion Website xiv

1 About this Book 1

1.1 Phonetics in a nutshell 2

1.2 The structure of this book 6

1.3 Terminology 8

1.4 Demonstrations and exercises 8

2 Articulatory Phonetics 9

Articulation in a nutshell 9

2.1 Phonation at the larynx 10

2.2 Basic articulatory terms 11

2.3 The articulation of consonants 14

2.3.1 Place of articulation 15

2.3.2 Manner of articulation 15

2.3.3 Other classification schemes 18

2.4 The articulation of vowels 20

3 Phonetic Transcription 24

Transcription in a nutshell 24

3.1 Types of transcription 25

3.2 Consonants 28

3.2.1 Plosives 29

3.2.2 Nasals 30

3.2.3 Fricatives 30

3.2.4 Affricates 31

3.2.5 Approximants 32

3.3 Vowels 33

3.4 Diacritics and other symbols 38

3.5 Transcription of General American English 39

3.5.1 Consonants 40

3.5.1.1 Aspiration, voicing, and devoicing 40

3.5.1.2 Coarticulation 41

3.5.1.3 Consonantal release 42

3.5.1.4 Flaps and taps 43

3.5.1.5 Glottal plosives 43

3.5.1.6 Velarization 44

3.5.1.7 Syllabic consonants 45

3.5.1.8 Intrusion 45

3.5.1.9 Duration 46

3.5.2 Vowels 48

3.5.2.1 Duration 48

3.5.2.2 Effects of following consonants 49

4 Place and Manner of Articulation of Consonants and Vowels 52

4.1 Consonants 53

4.1.1 Labials 55

4.1.2 Coronals 56

4.1.3 Dorsals 57

4.1.4 Gutturals 59

4.2 Additional manners of articulation 59

4.3 Vowels 60

4.4 Secondary articulations 63

5 Physiology of the Vocal Apparatus 66

Physiology in a nutshell 66

5.1 The subglottal system: lungs, bronchi, and trachea 69

5.1.1 Anatomy of the subglottal system 69

5.1.2 Movements of the lungs 71

5.1.2.1 Breathing in (inspiration, inhalation) 71

5.1.2.2 Breathing out (expiration, exhalation) 72

5.1.3 The volumes of the lungs and their control over time 72

5.1.4 Loudness and the air pressure in the lungs 74

5.2 Structure and function of the larynx 74

5.2.1 Anatomy of the larynx 75

5.2.2 Vocal fold vibration 78

5.2.2.1 The Bernoulli effect and the aerodynamic theory 78

5.2.2.2 The myoelastic theory of vocal fold vibration 81

5.2.2.3 Two‐mass theory of vocal fold vibration 83

5.2.2.4 Muco‐viscose, cover body, and flow‐separation theory 84

5.2.2.5 One cycle of vocal fold vibration 85

5.2.3 Loudness and larynx signal 86

5.2.4 Register 88

5.3 Vocal tract 89

5.3.1 Pharynx 89

5.3.2 Nasal tract and velum 90

5.3.3 Oral tract 92

6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types 95

Airstream mechanisms and phonation in a nutshell 95

6.1 Airstream mechanisms 96

6.1.1 Glottalic airstream mechanisms 96

6.1.2 Velaric airstream mechanism 100

6.2 Phonation types 102

6.3 Voicing, voicelessness, and aspiration in plosives 103

6.4 Common and rare sounds 110

7 Basic Acoustics 113

Basic acoustics in a nutshell 113

7.1 Sound waves 115

7.1.1 Sound waves are variations in air pressure 115

7.1.2 Origin and propagation of sound waves 115

7.1.3 The speed of sound 118

7.1.4 Relative positions within a sound wave 119

7.1.5 Longitudinal waves and transverse waves 120

7.2 Measuring sound waves 120

7.2.1 The microphone 121

7.2.2 The oscillogram or waveform 122

7.3 Acoustic dimensions and their units of measurement 123

7.3.1 Frequency 123

7.3.1.1 Period duration 124

7.3.1.2 Period duration and period frequency 125

7.3.1.3 Period frequency and wavelength 127

7.3.1.4 Representing F₀ over time 128

7.3.2 Amplitude 129

7.3.2.1 Representing amplitude changes over time 134

7.3.3 Phase 136

8 Analysis Methods for Speech Sounds 139

Analysis in a nutshell 139

8.1 Digitizing acoustic signals 141

8.1.1 Digitizing in the time and amplitude domains 142

8.1.2 Sampling rate 143

8.1.3 Quantizing resolution 145

8.2 Types of acoustic signals 148

8.3 Analyzing acoustic signals 151

8.3.1 Fourier transformation 152

8.3.1.1 Summing up signals: Fourier synthesis 152

8.3.1.2 Decomposing signals: Fourier analysis 154

8.3.1.3 Harmonic frequencies 155

8.3.1.4 Discrete Fourier transformation and “fast Fourier transformation” 158

8.3.1.5 Fourier transformation for non‐periodic signals 158

8.3.2 What information can be seen in a spectrum? 159

8.3.3 “Windowing” in spectral analysis 161

8.3.3.1 The relation between window size and spectral resolution 164

8.3.3.2 The relation between resolution in the time and frequency domains 165

8.3.4 Other spectral representations: the spectrogram 166

8.3.5 The LPC spectrum 169

8.3.6 The cepstrum and cepstrally smoothed spectrum 172

9 The Source–Filter Theory of Speech Production 175

The source–filter theory in a nutshell 175

9.1 Resonance 176

9.1.1 Resonating frequencies of cylindrical tubes 177

9.1.2 Resonating frequencies of non‐cylindrical tubes 180

9.2 Damping 183

9.3 Filters 183

9.3.1 Vocal tract filter 187

9.3.2 Radiation at the lips and nostrils 187

9.4 Formants 189

9.4.1 Formant frequencies 190

9.4.2 Formant bandwidth and quality 192

9.5 Sources for speech sounds 193

9.5.1 The glottal source: phonation for a modal voice 193

9.5.1.1 Jitter 196

9.5.1.2 Shimmer 197

9.5.1.3 Harmonics‐to‐noise ratio (HNR) 198

9.5.1.4 H1‐H2 measure and spectral tilt 198

9.5.2 Breathy voice 198

9.5.3 Creaky voice 200

9.5.4 The noise source: turbulence 201

9.5.4.1 Whisper 202

10 Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds 206

Acoustic characteristics in a nutshell 206

10.1 Vowels 207

10.2 Consonants 213

10.2.1 (Central) approximants 213

10.2.2 Fricatives 215

10.2.3 Plosives 219

10.2.4 Nasals 221

10.2.5 Lateral approximants 223

10.2.6 Affricates 224

10.3 Summary 226

10.4 Variability and invariance 227

10.4.1 A theory of acoustic invariance 228

11 Syllables and Suprasegmentals 234

Syllables and suprasegmentals in a nutshell 234

11.1 Syllables 236

11.2 Stress 238

11.3 Length 243

11.4 Tone and intonation 245

11.4.1 Tone 246

11.4.2 Intonation 249

12 Physiology and Psychophysics of Hearing 256

Hearing in a nutshell 257

12.1 The external ear 258

12.2 The middle ear 259

12.2.1 Increase in pressure in the middle ear 259

12.2.2 Sound attenuation in the middle ear 260

12.2.3 Pressure equalization in the tympanic cavity 261

12.2.4 The oval window 262

12.3 The internal ear 262

12.3.1 Pressure waves in the cochlea 263

12.3.2 The basilar membrane as an oscillating body 265

12.3.3 Resonance theory 265

12.3.4 Objections to the resonance theory 266

12.3.5 Traveling wave theory 266

12.4 The structure of the basilar membrane 267

12.4.1 Outer hair cells 268

12.4.2 Inner hair cells 269

12.4.3 Frequency coding along the basilar membrane 270

12.4.4 Oto‐acoustic emissions 271

12.5 Auditory frequency scales 272

12.5.1 Linear scales 272

12.5.2 Logarithmic scales 273

12.5.3 Mel scale 274

12.5.4 Bark scale 275

12.5.5 Equivalent rectangular bandwidth (ERB) scale 277

12.6 Auditory loudness scales 278

12.7 Auditory time scales 279

13 Speech Perception 281

Speech perception in a nutshell 282

13.1 Vowels 284

13.1.1 Extrinsic versus intrinsic normalization 285

13.2 Consonants 288

13.2.1 Approximants 289

13.2.2 Fricatives 290

13.2.3 Nasals 291

13.2.4 Plosives 292

13.3 Contributions of the motor theory of speech perception 295

13.3.1 Categorical perception 296

13.3.2 Is speech “special”? 301

13.3.2.1 Non‐speech perception 303

13.3.2.2 Animal perception 304

13.4 Theories of speech perception 305

13.5 The role of linguistic experience in speech perception 309

13.6 Summary 313

Appendices

A.1 Mass, Force, and Pressure 315

A.2 Energy, Power, and Intensity 317

A.3 The Decibel (dB) 320

A.3.1 RMS amplitude 320

A.3.2 RMS amplitude and loudness 324

A.3.3 Calculations with dB values 327

B.1 Physical Terminology 330

B.2 Mathematical Notations 332

C.1 Formant Values 336

C.2 Fundamental Frequency Values 337

D.1 Glossary 338

References 355

Index 368

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