9780201610871

This book takes a fresh look at the last three decades and enormous developments in the new electo-optic devices and associated materials. General Treatment and various proofs are at a semiquantitative level without going into detailed physics. Contains numerous worked examples and solved problems.Chapter topics include wave nature of light, dielectric waveguides and optical fibers, semiconductor science and light emitting diodes, photodetectors, photovoltaic devices, and polarization and modulation of light.For the study of optoelectronics by electrical engineers.

SAFA KASAP is currently a Professor of Electronic Materials and Devices in the Electrical Engineering Department at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada. He obtained the B.S.E.E. (1976), M.S. (1978), and Ph.D. (1983) degrees from Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of London, specializing in amorphous semiconductors and optoelectronics. In 1996 he was awarded the D.Sc. (Engineering) degree from London University for his research contributions to materials science in electrical engineering. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the Institute of Physics and the Institute of Materials. His research interests are in amorphous semiconductors, noise in electronic devices, photoconductors, photodetectors, X-ray image detectors, laser-induced transient photocnductivity and related topics, with more than 100 refereed journal publications in these areas.

Wave Nature of Light

1

(50)

Light Waves in a Homogeneous Medium

1

(6)

Plane Electromagnetic Wave

1

(3)

Maxwell's Wave Equation and Diverging Waves

4

(3)

Example 1.1.1:A diverging laser beam

7

(1)

Refractive Index

7

(2)

Example 1.2.1: Relative permittivity and refractive index

8

(1)

Group Velocity and Group Index

9

(2)

Example 1.3.1: Group velocity

11

(1)

Example 1.3.2: Group and phase velocities

11

(1)

Magnetic Field, Irradiance, and Poynting Vector

11

(3)

Example 1.4.1: Electric and magnetic fields in light

13

(1)

Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

14

(2)

Fresnel's Equations

16

(12)

Amplitude Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

16

(6)

Example 1.6.1: Evanescent wave

22

(1)

Intensity, Reflectance, and Transmittance

23

(1)

Example 1.6.2: Reflection of light from a less dense medium

24

(1)

Example 1.6.3: Reflection at normal incidence. Internal and external reflection

25

(1)

Example 1.6.4: Antireflection coatings on solar cells

26

(1)

Example 1.6.5: Dielectric mirrors

27

(1)

Multiple Interference and Optical Resonators

28

(4)

Example 1.7.1: Resonator modes and spectral width

31

(1)

Goos-Hanchen Shift and Optical Tunneling

32

(2)

Temporal and Spatial Coherence

34

(3)

Diffraction Principles

37

(13)

Fraunhofer Diffraction

37

(4)

Example 1.10.1: Resolving power of imaging systems

41

(1)

Diffraction grating

42

(2)

Questions and Problems

44

(6)

Dielectric Waveguides and Optical Fibers

50

(57)

Symmetric Planar Dielectric Slab Waveguide

50

(10)

Waveguide Condition

50

(5)

Single and Multimode Waveguides

55

(1)

TE and TM Modes

56

(1)

Example 2.1.1: Waveguide modes

57

(1)

Example 2.1.2: V-number and the number of modes

58

(1)

Example 2.1.3: Mode field distance (MFD)

59

(1)

Modal and Waveguide Dispersion in the Planar Waveguide

60

(3)

Waveguide Dispersion Diagram

60

(1)

Intermodal Dispersion

60

(2)

Intramodal Dispersion

62

(1)

Step Index Fiber

63

(6)

Example 2.3.1: A multimode fiber

68

(1)

Example 2.3.2: A single mode fiber

68

(1)

Example 2.3.3: Single mode cut-off wavelength

68

(1)

Example 2.3.4: Group velocity and delay

69

(1)

Numerical Aperture

69

(2)

Example 2.4.1: A multimode fiber and total acceptance angle

71

(1)

Example 2.4.2: A single mode fiber

71

(1)

Dispersion in Single Mode Fibers

71

(7)

Material Dispersion

71

(2)

Waveguide Dispersion

73

(1)

Chromatic Dispersion or Total Dispersion

74

(1)

Profile and Polarization Dispersion Effects

75

(1)

Dispersion Flattened Fibers

76

(1)

Example 2.5.1: Material dispersion

77

(1)

Example 2.5.2: Material, waveguide, and chromatic dispersion

77

(1)

Bit-Rate, Dispersion, Electrical, and Optical Bandwidth

78

(5)

Bit-Rate and Dispersion

78

(3)

Optical and Electrical Bandwidth

81

(1)

Example 2.6.1: Bit-rate and dispersion

82

(1)

The Graded Index Optical Fiber

83

(4)

Example 2.7.1: Dispersion in a graded-index fiber and bit-rate

85

(2)

Light Absorption and Scattering

87

(3)

Absorption

87

(1)

Scattering

88

(2)

Attenuation in Optical Fibers

90

(4)

Example 2.9.1: Rayleigh scattering limit

93

(1)

Example 2.9.2: Attenuation along an optical fiber

94

(1)

Fiber Manufacture

94

(13)

Fiber Drawing

94

(2)

Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)

96

(2)

Example 2.10.1: Fiber drawing

98

(1)

Questions and Problems

98

(9)

Semiconductor Science and Light Emitting Diodes

107

(52)

Semiconductor Concepts and Energy Bands

107

(12)

Energy Band Diagrams

107

(3)

Semiconductor Statistics

110

(3)

Extrinsic Semiconductors

113

(3)

Compensation Doping

116

(1)

Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors

117

(1)

Energy Band Diagrams in an Applied Field

118

(1)

Example 3.1.1: Fermi levels in semiconductors

118

(1)

Example 3.1.2: Conductivity

119

(1)

Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors: E-k Diagrams

119

(4)

pn Junction Principles

123

(14)

Open Circuit

123

(3)

Forward Bias

126

(5)

Reverse Bias

131

(3)

Depletion Layer Capacitance

134

(1)

Recombination Lifetime

135

(1)

Example 3.3.1: A direct band gap pn junction

136

(1)

The pn Junction Band Diagram

137

(2)

Open Circuit

137

(1)

Forward and Reverse Bias

138

(1)

Light Emitting Diodes

139

(3)

Principles

139

(2)

Device Structures

141

(1)

LED Materials

142

(2)

Heterojunction High Intensity LEDs

144

(3)

LED Characteristics

147

(3)

Example 3.8.1: LED output spectrum

149

(1)

Example 3.8.2: LED output wavelength variations

149

(1)

Example 3.8.3: InGaAsP on InP substrate

150

(1)

LEDs for Optical Fiber Communications

150

(9)

Questions and Problems

153

(6)

Stimulated Emission Devices Lasers

159

(58)

Stimulated Emission and Photon Amplification

159

(3)

Stimulated Emission Rate and Einstein Coefficients

162

(2)

Optical Fiber Amplifiers

164

(2)

Gas Laser: The He-Ne Laser

166

(4)

Example 4.4.1: Efficiency of the He-Ne laser

169

(1)

Example 4.4.2: Laser beam divergence

170

(1)

The Output Spectrum of a Gas Laser

170

(4)

Example 4.5.1: Doppler broadened linewidth

173

(1)

LASER Oscillation Conditions

174

(7)

Optical Gain Coefficient g

174

(2)

Threshold Gain gth

176

(2)

Phase Condition and Laser Modes

178

(3)

Example 4.6.1: Threshold population inversion for the He-Ne laser

181

(1)

Principle of the Laser Diode

181

(4)

Heterostructure Laser Diodes

185

(5)

Example 4.8.1: Modes in a laser and the optical cavity length

189

(1)

Elementary Laser Diode Characteristics

190

(2)

Example 4.9.1: Laser output wavelength variations

192

(1)

Steady State Semiconductor Rate Equation

192

(3)

Light Emitters for Optical Fiber Communications

195

(1)

Single Frequency Solid State Lasers

196

(3)

Example 4.12.1: DFB Laser

198

(1)

Quantum Well Devices

199

(4)

Example 4.13.1: A GaAs quantum well

202

(1)

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

203

(2)

Optical Laser Amplifiers

205

(1)

Holography

206

(11)

Questions and Problems

209

(8)

Photodetectors

217

(37)

Principle of the pn Junction Photodiode

217

(2)

Ramo's Theorem and External Photocurrent

219

(2)

Absorption Coefficient and Photodiode Materials

221

(3)

Quantum Efficiency and Responsivity

224

(1)

The pin Photodiode

225

(5)

Example 5.5.1: Operation and speed of a pin photodiode

228

(1)

Example 5.5.2: Photocarrier diffusion in a pin photodiode

228

(1)

Example 5.5.3: Responsivity of a pin photodiode

229

(1)

Avalanche Photodiode

230

(4)

Example 5.6.1: InGaAs APD Responsivity

234

(1)

Example 5.6.2: Silicon APD

234

(1)

Heterojunction Photodiodes

234

(3)

Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD

234

(2)

Superlattice APDs

236

(1)

Phototransistors

237

(2)

Photoconductive Detectors and Photoconductive Gain

239

(3)

Noise In Photodetectors

242

(12)

The pn Junction and the pin Photodiodes

242

(2)

Example 5.10.1: NEP of a Si pin photodiode

244

(1)

Example 5.10.2: Noise of an ideal photodetector

244

(1)

Example 5.10.3: SNR of a receiver

245

(1)

Avalanche Noise in the APD

246

(1)

Example 5.10.4: Noise in an APD

246

(1)

Questions and Problems

247

(7)

Photovoltaic Devices

254

(21)

Solar Energy Spectrum

254

(3)

Example 6.1.1: Solar energy conversion

256

(1)

Photovoltaic Device Principles

257

(4)

Example 6.2.1: The photocurrent Iph

260

(1)

pn Junction Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics

261

(4)

Example 6.3.1: A solar cell driving a resistive load

264

(1)

Example 6.3.2: Open circuit voltage and illumination

264

(1)

Series Resistance and Equivalent Circuit

265

(3)

Example 6.4.1: Solar cells in parallel

267

(1)

Temperature Effects

268

(1)

Solar Cells Materials, Devices, and Efficiencies

269

(6)

Question and Problems

272

(3)

Polarization and Modulation of Light

275

(48)

Polarization

275

(5)

State of Polarization

275

(3)

Example 7.1.1: Elliptical and circular polarization

278

(1)

Malu's Law

279

(1)

Light propagation in an Anisotropic Medium: Birefringence

280

(7)

Optical Anisotropy

280

(1)

Uniaxial Crystals and Fresnel's Optical Indicatrix

281

(4)

Birefringence of Calcite

285

(1)

Dichroism

286

(1)

Birefringent Optical Devices

287

(5)

Retarding Plates

287

(1)

Example 7.3.1: Quartz half-wave plate

288

(1)

Example 7.3.2: Circular polarization from linear polarization

289

(1)

Soleil-Babinet Compensator

289

(2)

Birefringent Prisms

291

(1)

Optical Activity and Circular Birefringence

292

(2)

Electro-Optic Effects

294

(7)

Definitions

294

(1)

Pockels Effect

295

(4)

Example 7.5.1: Pockets Cell Modulator

299

(1)

Kerr Effect

300

(1)

Example 7.5.2: Kerr effect modulator

301

(1)

Integrated Optical Modulators

301

(6)

Phase and Polarization Modulation

301

(2)

Mach-Zehnder Modulator

303

(1)

Coupled Waveguide Modulators

304

(3)

Example 7.6.1: Modulated directional coupler

307

(1)

Acousto-Optic Modulator

307

(3)

Example 7.7.1: Modulated Directional Coupler

309

(1)

Magneto-Optic Effects

310

(1)

Non-Linear Optics and Second Harmonic Generation

311

(12)

Questions and Problems

314

(9)

Notation and Abbreviations

323

(9)

Index

332

CD-ROM: Optoelectronics and Photonics Contents

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PrefaceThis textbook represents a first course in optoelectronic materials and devices suitable for a half- or one-semester semester course at the undergraduate level in electrical engineering, engineering physics, and materials science and engineering departments. It can also be used at the graduate level as an introductory course by including some of the selected topics in the CD-ROM. Normally, the students would not have covered Maxwell's equations. Although Maxwell's equations are mentioned in the text to alert the students they are not used in developing the principles. It is assumed that the students would have taken a basic first- or second-year physics course, with modern physics, and would have seen rudimentary concepts in geometrical optics, interference, and diffraction, but not Fresnel's equations and concepts, such as group velocity and group index. Typically, an optoelectronics course would either be given after a semiconductor devices course or concurrently. Students would have been exposed to elementary quantum mechanical concepts, perhaps in conjunction with a basic semiconductor science course.I tried to keep the general treatment and various proofs at a semiquantitative level without going into detailed physics. Most topics are initially introduced through intuitive explanations to allow the concept to be grasped first before any mathematical development. The mathematical level is assumed to include vectors, complex numbers, and partial differentiation, but excludes Fourier transforms. On the one hand, we are required to cover as much as possible and, on the other hand, professional engineering accreditation requires students to solve numerical problems and carry out "design calculations." In preparing the text, I tried to satisfy engineering degree accreditation requirements in as much breadth as possible. Obviously one cannot solve numerical problems, carry out design calculations, and derive each equation at the same time without expanding the size of the text to an unacceptable level. I have missed many topics but I have also covered many; though, undoubtedly, my own biased selection.The book has a CD-ROM that contains the figures as large color diagrams in a common portable document format (PDF). They can be printed on nearly any color printer to make overhead projector transparencies for the instructor and class-ready notes for the students so they do not have to draw the diagrams during the lectures. The diagrams have been also put into PowerPoint for directly delivering the lecture material from a computer. In addition, there are numerous selected topics and other educational features on the CD-ROM that follows a web-format. Both instructors and students will find the selected topics very useful. These selected topics have been prepared by various authors and specialists in optoelectronics as stand-alone chapters, and they cover a wide range of topics. Although some of these topics are treated at the graduate level and review a particular area, there are also numerous selected topics at the elementary level for undergraduate students. In addition, some of these topics appear as color reprints of interesting articles taken, with permission, from various educational journals such asPhysics Today, Physics World, IEEE Spectrum, American Journal of Physics, Laser Focus, Photonics,and various other magazines and journals.A number of colleagues took time to read portions of the manuscripts and provided many useful suggestions that made this a better book. My special thanks go to Professor Charbel Tannous (Brest University, France) and Dr. Yann Boucher (RESO Laboratory, Ecole Nationale d'Ingenieurs de Brest, France), both of whom kept challenging me with their incisive criticisms and dedication to accuracy. It's a pleasure to thank Professors Dave Dodds (University of Saskatchewan), Jai Singh (Northern Territory University, Australia), Harry Ruda (University of T

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Optoelectronics and Photonics : Principles and Practices

Optoelectronics and Photonics : Principles and Practices

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