The Basics of Social Research

ISBN 13:
9780534519551
ISBN 10:
0534519555
Edition: 2nd
Format: Paperback
Copyright: 08/01/2001
Publisher: Cengage Learning
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Preface

xvi

Prologue

xxi

Part One AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY

(77)

Human Inquiry and Science

(23)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Looking for Reality

(6)

Ordinary Human Inquiry

(1)

Tradition

(1)

Authority

(1)

Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions

(1)

What's Really Real?

(3)

The Foundations of Social Science

(7)

Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief

(2)

Social Regularities

(1)

Aggregates, Not Individuals

(1)

A Variable Language

(4)

Some Dialectics of Social Research

(4)

Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation

(1)

Inductive and Deductive Theory

(1)

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

(2)

Pure and Applied Research

A Quandary Revisited

(1)

Main Points

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Additional Readings

(1)

Multimedia Resources

(1)

Paradigms, Theory, and Research

(28)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Some Social Science Paradigms

(9)

Macrotheory and Microtheory

(1)

Early Positivism

(1)

Conflict Paradigm

(1)

Symbolic Interactionism

(1)

Ethnomethodology

(1)

Structural Functionalism

(1)

Feminist Paradigms

(1)

Rational Objectivity Reconsidered

(3)

Two Logical Systems Revisited

(8)

The Traditional Model of Science

(2)

Deduction and Induction Compared

(6)

Deductive Theory Construction

(2)

Getting Started

(1)

Constructing Your Theory

(1)

An Example of Deductive Theory: Distributive Justice

(2)

Inductive Theory Construction

(2)

An Example of Inductive Theory: Why Do People Smoke Marijuana?

(1)

The Links between Theory and Research

(1)

The Importance of Theory in the ``Real World''

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

(1)

Main Points

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Additional Readings

(1)

Multimedia Resources

(1)

The Ethics and Politics of Social Research

(25)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Ethical Issues in Social Research

(10)

Voluntary Participation

(1)

No Harm to the Participants

(1)

Anonymity and Confidentiality

(2)

Deception

(1)

Analysis and Reporting

(1)

Institutional Review Boards

(3)

Professional Codes of Ethics

(1)

Two Ethical Controversies

(3)

Trouble in the Tearoom

(2)

Observing Human Obedience

(1)

The Politics of Social Research

(5)

Objectivity and Ideology

(3)

Politics with a Little ``p''

(1)

Politics in Perspective

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

(1)

Main Points

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Additional Readings

(1)

Multimedia Resources

(2)

Part Two THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY

(136)

Research Design

(33)

An Opening Quandary

(1)

Introduction

(2)

Three Purposes of Research

(2)

Exploration

(1)

Description

(1)

Explanation

(1)

The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation

(3)

Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

(1)

False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

(1)

Necessary and Sufficient Causes

(1)

Units of Analysis

(7)

Individuals

(1)

Groups

(1)

Organizations

(3)

Social Artifacts

(1)

Units of Analysis in Review

(1)

Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis: The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism

(1)

The Time Dimension

(5)

Cross-Sectional Studies

(1)

Longitudinal Studies

(2)

Approximating Longitudinal Studies

(1)

Examples of Research Strategies

100

(1)

How to Design a Research Project

101

(6)

Getting Started

103

(1)

Conceptualization

104

(1)

Choice of Research Method

104

(1)

Operationalization

104

(1)

Population and Sampling

105

(1)

Observations

105

(1)

Data Processing

105

(1)

Analysis

106

(1)

Application

106

(1)

Research Design in Review

106

(1)

The Research Proposal

107

(1)

Elements of a Research Proposal

107

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

108

(1)

Main Points

109

(1)

Key Terms

110

(1)

Review Questions

110

(1)

Additional Readings

111

(1)

Multimedia Resources

111

(1)

Answers to Units of Analysis Quiz

112

(1)

Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement

113

(32)

An Opening Quandary

114

(1)

Introduction

114

(1)

Measuring Anything That Exists

115

(3)

Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality

115

(2)

Conceptions as Constructs

117

(1)

Conceptualization

118

(6)

Indicators and Dimensions

118

(1)

The Interchangeability of Indicators

119

(1)

Real, Nominal, and Operational Definitions

120

(1)

Creating Conceptual Order

121

(1)

An Example of Conceptualization: The Concept of Anomie

122

(2)

Definitions in Descriptive and Explanatory Studies

124

(2)

Operationalization Choices

126

(9)

Range of Variation

127

(1)

Variations between the Extremes

128

(1)

A Note on Dimensions

128

(1)

Defining Variables and Attributes

129

(1)

Levels of Measurement

129

(4)

Single or Multiple Indicators

133

(1)

Some Illustrations of Operationalization Choices

134

(1)

Operationalization Goes On and On

135

(1)

Criteria of Measurement Quality

135

(6)

Precision and Accuracy

136

(1)

Reliability

136

(3)

Validity

139

(2)

Who Decides What's Valid?

141

(1)

Tension between Reliability and Validity

141

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

141

(1)

Main Points

142

(1)

Key Terms

143

(1)

Review Questions

143

(1)

Additional Readings

143

(1)

Multimedia Resources

144

(1)

Indexes, Scales, and Typologies

145

(28)

An Opening Quandary

146

(1)

Introduction

146

(3)

Indexes versus Scales

147

(2)

Index Construction

149

(14)

Item Selection

149

(1)

Examination of Empirical Relationships

150

(6)

Index Scoring

156

(1)

Handling Missing Data

157

(2)

Index Validation

159

(3)

The Status of Women: An Illustration of Index Construction

162

(1)

Scale Construction

163

(6)

Bogardus Social Distance Scale

163

(1)

Thurstone Scales

164

(1)

Likert Scaling

164

(1)

Semantic Differential

165

(1)

Guttman Scaling

166

(3)

Typologies

169

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

169

(1)

Main Points

170

(1)

Key Terms

171

(1)

Review Questions

171

(1)

Additional Readings

171

(1)

Multimedia Resources

172

(1)

The Logic of Sampling

173

(41)

An Opening Quandary

174

(1)

Introduction

174

(2)

A Brief History of Sampling

176

(2)

President Alf Landon

176

(1)

President Thomas E. Dewey

177

(1)

Two Types of Sampling Methods

177

(1)

Nonprobability Sampling

178

(3)

Reliance on Avalable Subjects

178

(1)

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

178

(1)

Snowball Sampling

179

(1)

Quota Sampling

179

(1)

Selecting Informants

180

(1)

The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling

181

(12)

Concious and Unconscious Sampling Bias

182

(2)

Representativeness and Probability of Selection

184

(1)

Random Selection

185

(1)

Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, and Estimates of Sample Error

185

(8)

Populations and Sampling Frames

193

(4)

Review of Populations and Sampling Frames

196

(1)

Types of Sampling Designs

197

(6)

Simple Random Sampling

197

(1)

Systematic Sampling

197

(3)

Stratified Sampling

200

(2)

Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling

202

(1)

Illustration: Sampling University Students

202

(1)

Multistage Cluster Sampling

203

(6)

Multistage Designs and Sampling Error

203

(2)

Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling

205

(1)

Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) Sampling

205

(2)

Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting

207

(2)

Probability Sampling in Review

209

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

209

(1)

Main Points

210

(1)

Key Terms

211

(1)

Review Questions

211

(1)

Additional Readings

211

(1)

Multimedia Resources

211

(3)

Part Three MODES OF OBSERVATION

214

(152)

Experiments

216

(22)

An Opening Quandary

217

(1)

Introduction

217

(1)

Topics Appropriate to Experiments

218

(1)

The Classical Experiment

218

(3)

Independent and Dependent Variables

218

(1)

Pretesting and Posttesting

219

(1)

Experimental and Control Groups

219

(2)

The Double-Blind Experiment

221

(1)

Selecting Subjects

221

(3)

Probability Sampling

222

(1)

Randomization

222

(1)

Matching

223

(1)

Matching or Randomization?

224

(1)

Variations on Experimental Design

224

(6)

Preexperimental Research Designs

224

(1)

Validity Issues in Experimental Research

225

(5)

An Illustration of Experimentation

230

(3)

``Natural'' Experiments

233

(2)

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Experimental Method

235

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

235

(1)

Main Points

235

(1)

Key Terms

236

(1)

Review Questions

236

(1)

Additional Readings

236

(1)

Multimedia Resources

237

(1)

Survey Research

238

(41)

An Opening Quandary

239

(1)

Introduction

240

(1)

Topics Appropriate for Survey Research

240

(1)

Guidelines for Asking Questions

241

(6)

Choose Appropriate Question Forms

241

(1)

Make Items Clear

242

(1)

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions

243

(1)

Respondents Must Be Competent to Answer

243

(2)

Respondents Must Be Willing to Answer

245

(1)

Questions Should Be Relevant

245

(1)

Short Items Are Best

245

(1)

Avoid Negative Items

246

(1)

Avoid Biased Items and Terms

246

(1)

Questionnaire Construction

247

(6)

General Questionnaire Format

247

(1)

Formats for Respondents

248

(1)

Contingency Questions

248

(2)

Matrix Questions

250

(1)

Ordering Items in a Questionnaire

250

(2)

Questionnaire Instructions

252

(1)

Pretesting the Questionnaire

253

(1)

A Composite Illustration

253

(1)

Self-Administered Questionnaires

253

(8)

Mail Distribution and Return

257

(1)

Monitoring Returns

257

(1)

Follow-up Mailings

257

(2)

Acceptable Response Rates

259

(1)

A Case Study

260

(1)

Interview Surveys

261

(5)

The Role of the Survey Interviewer

261

(1)

General Guidelines for Survey Interviewing

262

(2)

Coordination and Control

264

(2)

Telephone Surveys

266

(2)

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)

267

(1)

New Technologies and Survey Research

268

(3)

Comparison of the Different Survey Methods

271

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research

272

(1)

Secondary Analysis

273

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

274

(1)

Main Points

275

(1)

Key Terms

276

(1)

Review Questions

276

(1)

Additional Readings

276

(1)

Multimedia Resources

277

(2)

Qualitative Field Research

279

(31)

An Opening Quandary

280

(1)

Introduction

280

(1)

Topics Appropriate to Field Research

281

(3)

Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Research

284

(3)

The Various Roles of the Observer

284

(1)

Relations to Subjects

285

(2)

Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms

287

(9)

Naturalism

288

(1)

Ethnomethodology

288

(2)

Grounded Theory

290

(1)

Case Studies and the Extended Case Method

291

(2)

Institutional Ethnography

293

(1)

Participatory Action Research

294

(2)

Conducting Qualitative Field Research

296

(8)

Preparing for the Field

296

(1)

Qualitative Interviewing

297

(3)

Focus Groups

300

(2)

Recording Observations

302

(2)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research

304

(3)

Validity

305

(1)

Reliability

306

(1)

Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research

307

A Quandary Revisited

306

(1)

Main Points

307

(1)

Key Terms

308

(1)

Review Questions

308

(1)

Additional Readings

308

(1)

Multimedia Resources

309

(1)

Unobtrusive Research

310

(29)

An Opening Quandary

311

(1)

Introduction

311

(1)

Content Analysis

312

(11)

Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis

312

(1)

Sampling in Content Analysis

313

(4)

Coding in Content Analysis

317

(4)

An Illustration of Content Analysis

321

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis

322

(1)

Analyzing Existing Statistics

323

(6)

Durkheim's Study of Suicide

323

(2)

Units of Analysis

325

(1)

Problems of Validity

325

(1)

Problems of Reliability

325

(2)

Sources of Existing Statistics

327

(2)

Historical/Comparative Analysis

329

(7)

Examples of Historical/Comparative Analysis

329

(3)

Sources of Historical/Comparative Data

332

(2)

Analytical Techniques

334

(2)

A Quandary Revisited

336

(1)

Main Points

336

(1)

Key Terms

337

(1)

Review Questions

337

(1)

Additional Readings

337

(1)

Multimedia Resources

338

(1)

Evaluation Research

339

(27)

An Opening Quandary

340

(1)

Introduction

340

(2)

Topics Appropriate to Evaluation Research

342

(1)

Formulating the Problem: Issues of Measurement

343

(4)

Specifying Outcomes

344

(1)

Measuring Experimental Contexts

345

(1)

Specifying Interventions

345

(1)

Specifying the Population

345

(1)

New versus Existing Measures

346

(1)

Operationalizing Success/Failure

346

(1)

Types of Evaluation Research Designs

347

(6)

Experimental Designs

347

(1)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

348

(3)

Qualitative Evaluations

351

(2)

The Social Context

353

(8)

Logistical Problems

353

(2)

Some Ethical Issues

355

(2)

Use of Research Results

357

(4)

Social Indicators Research

361

(2)

The Death Penalty and Deterrence

361

(1)

Computer Simulation

362

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

363

(1)

Main Points

363

(1)

Key Terms

364

(1)

Review Questions

364

(1)

Additional Readings

364

(1)

Multimedia Resources

365

(1)

Part Four ANALYSIS OF DATA

366

(74)

Qualitative Data Analysis

368

(26)

An Opening Quandary

369

(1)

Introduction

369

(1)

Linking Theory and Analysis

369

(6)

Discovering Patterns

370

(1)

Grounded Theory Method

371

(1)

Semiotics

372

(2)

Conversation Analysis

374

(1)

Qualitative Data Processing

375

(6)

Coding

375

(4)

Memoing

379

(1)

Concept Mapping

380

(1)

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data

381

(9)

Leviticus as Seen through HyperResearch

382

(3)

Sandrine Zerbib: Using NVivo to Understand Women Film Directors

385

(5)

The Qualitative Analysis of Quantitative Data

390

(1)

A Quandary Revisited

390

(2)

Main Points

392

(1)

Key Terms

392

(1)

Review Questions

392

(1)

Additional Readings

392

(1)

Multimedia Resources

393

(1)

Quantitative Data Analysis

394

(46)

An Opening Quandary

395

(1)

Introduction

395

(1)

Quantification of Data

396

(4)

Developing Code Categories

397

(2)

Codebook Construction

399

(1)

Data Entry

400

(1)

Univariate Analysis

400

(6)

Distributions

400

(2)

Central Tendency

402

(3)

Dispersion

405

(1)

Continuous and Discrete Variables

406

(1)

Detail versus Manageability

406

(1)

Subgroup Comparisons

406

(4)

``Collapsing'' Response Categories

407

(1)

Handling ``Don't Knows''

408

(1)

Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative Research

409

(1)

Bivariate Analysis

410

(12)

Percentaging a Table

411

(3)

Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables

414

(1)

Introduction to Multivariate Analysis

415

(2)

A Quandary Revisited

417

(1)

Main Points

418

(1)

Key Terms

419

(1)

Review Questions

419

(1)

Additional Readings

419

(1)

Multimedia Resources

420

(2)

Appendixes

A Using the Library

422

(6)

B The Reseach Report

428

(6)

C Random Numbers

434

(2)

D Distribution of Chi Square

436

(2)

E Normal Curve Areas

438

(1)

F Estimated Sampling Error

439

(1)

Glossary

440

(11)

Bibliography

451

(10)

Index

461

The Basics of Social Research

9780534519551

0534519555

Table of Contents

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The Basics of Social Research

9780534519551

0534519555

Table of Contents

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