1. Introduction to Literacy Difficulties

2. Factors Involved in Reading and Writing Difficulties

3. Overview of Assessment

4. Placing Students and Monitoring Progress

5. Assessment of Reading and Writing Processes

6. Assessment of Cognitive, School, and Home Factors

7. Emergent Literacy and Prevention Programs

8. Teaching Phonics, High-Frequency Words, and Fluency

9. Syllabic, Morphemic, and Contextual Analysis and Dictionary Strategies

10. Building Vocabulary

11. Building Comprehension

12. Reading to Learn and Remember in the Content Areas

13. Building Writing Strategies

14. Tier II and III Programs for Students of All Ages

15. Organization of Intervention and Corrective Programs

Appendix A: Informal Assessment Measures

Appendix B: Sample Assessment Report

Glossary

References

Index

1. Introduction to Literacy Difficulties 1

Using What You Know 1 • Anticipation Guide 1 • Nature of Reading Difficulties 2 • The Nature of Intervention and Corrective Instruction 7 • Principles of Intervention and Corrective Instruction 10 • Impact of Federal Legislation and Standards 15 • Summary 16 • Application Activities 17

2. Factors Involved in Reading and Writing Difficulties 19

Using What You Know 19 • Anticipation Guide 19 • Interacting Factors in Reading and Writing Difficulty 20 • Cognitive Factors 21 • Language Factors 27 • Affective Factors 31 • Physical Causes 35 • Social, Cultural, Economic, and Educational Factors 45 • Summary 48 • Application Activities 49

3. Overview of Assessment 51

Using What You Know 51 • Anticipation Guide 51 • Principles of Effective Assessment 52 • Tests 56 • Assessing for Learning 63 • Evaluating Assessment Devices 64 • High-Stakes Tests 67 • Assessing English Language Learners 68 • Summary 69 • Application Activities 71

4. Placing Students and Monitoring Progress 73

Using What You Know 73 • Anticipation Guide 73 • The Informal Reading Inventory 74 • Reaching the Frustration Level 85 • Establishing Listening Capacity 85 • Running Records 93 • Planning Instruction

Based on IRI, Miscue Analysis, or Running Record Results 97 • IRI-Based Tests 97 • Screening, Monitoring Progress, and Benchmarking 99 • Summary 108 • Application Activities 109

5. Assessment of Reading and Writing Processes 111

Using What You Know 111 • Anticipation Guide 111 • Reading Processes: Decoding 112 • Reading Processes: Comprehension and Study Skills 114 • Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 125 • Assessing

Writing 126 • Spelling and Handwriting 131 • Summary 139 • Application Activities 139

6. Assessment of Cognitive, School, and Home Factors 141

Using What You Know 141 • Anticipation Guide 141 • Assessment of Capacity 142 • Tests of Listening, Language, Memory, Associative Learning, and Word Finding 146 • Assessing the Instructional Situation 149 • Case History 152 • Summarizing, Organizing, Interpreting, and Reporting Assessment Data 157 • Mini–Case Study 163 • Summary 164 • Application Activities 165

7. Emergent Literacy and Prevention Programs 167

Using What You Know 167 • Anticipation Guide 167 • Emergent Literacy and Prevention Programs 168 • Using Read-Alouds and Writing to Develop Emergent Literacy 168 • Phonological Processes and Reading 179 • Letter Knowledge 195 • Mini–Case Study 198 • Prekindergarten Prevention Programs 199 • Summary 201 • Application Activities 202

8. Teaching Phonics, High-Frequency Words, and Fluency 203

Using What You Know 203 • Anticipation Guide 203 • Phonics and the Struggling Reader 204 • Teaching Consonants 211 • Teaching Vowels 221 • Mini–Case Study 244 • Word-Analysis Strategies 244 • Mini–Case Study 254 • High-Frequency Words 254 • Fostering Fluency 264 • Mini–Case Study 271 • Summary 272 • Application Activities 273

9. Syllabic, Morphemic, and Contextual Analysis and Dictionary Strategies 275

Using What You Know 275 • Anticipation Guide 275 • Syllabic Analysis 276 • Morphemic Analysis 286 • Contextual Analysis 293 • Using the Dictionary 297 • Balanced Use of Strategies 299 • Mini–Case Study 300 • Summary 300 • Application Activities 301

10. Building Vocabulary 303

Using What You Know 303 • Anticipation Guide 303 • The Nature of Vocabulary Instruction for Underachieving Readers 304 • Principles of Vocabulary Instruction 307 • Teaching Words 309 • Teaching

Vocabulary to English Learners 321 • A Full Program of Vocabulary Development 325 • Mini–Case Study 326 • Summary 327 • Application Activities 327

11. Building Comprehension 329

Using What You Know 329 • Anticipation Guide 329 • Theories of Comprehension 330 • Comprehension Strategies 333 • Beyond Strategies 357 • Importance of Background Knowledge, Reasoning and Talk 360 • Lessons and Teaching Techniques that Foster Comprehension 366 • Mini–Case Study 377 • Summary 377 • Application Activities 379

12. Reading to Learn and Remember in the Content Areas 381

Using What You Know 381 • Anticipation Guide 381 • The Challenge of Content-Area Instruction 382 • Framework for Teaching Content-Area Reading 384 • Using Text Structure 387 • Instructional Techniques

for Fostering Learning From Text 397 • Textbooks in the Content Areas 419 • Teaching Literature to Struggling Readers 427 • Reading to Learn and Remember 431 • Mini–Case Study 439 • Summary 440 •

Application Activities 441

13. Building Writing Strategies 443

Using What You Know 443 • Anticipation Guide 443 • Struggling Writers and the Nature of Writing 444 • Writing Workshop 451 • Composing Narrative, Explanatory/Informational, and Persuasive Texts 454 •

Writing Programs for Low-Achieving Readers and Writers 459 • Mini–Case Study 466 • Spelling and Handwriting 471 • Summary 475 • Application Activities 476

14. Tier II and III Programs for Students of All Ages 477

Using What You Know 477 • Anticipation Guide 477 • Approaches to Intervention 478 • Intervention Programs 479 • The Need for Specialized Techniques 489 • Working with English Learners 500 •

Summary 502 • Application Activities 503

15. Organization of Intervention and Corrective Programs 505

Using What You Know 505 • Anticipation Guide 505 • The Changing Face of Intervention 506 • Components of an Effective Intervention Program 508 • Matching Students with Materials 517 • Technology for the Reading/Writing Program 521 • Summary 524 • Application Activities 525

Appendix A: Informal Assessment Measures 527

Appendix B: Sample Assessment Report 531

Glossary 539

References 545

Index 573

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