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Fundamentals of Physiology A Human Perspective (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

by: Sherwood, Lauralee

Fundamentals of Physiology A Human Perspective (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

by: Sherwood, Lauralee

ISBN 13: 9780534466978
ISBN 10: 0534466974
Edition: 3rd
Format: Paperback
Copyright: 03/30/2005
Publisher: Brooks Cole
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Summary

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSIOLOGY, Third Edition, is based on Lauralee Sherwood's best selling Fifth Edition of HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY: FROM CELLS TO SYSTEMS. While both texts cover the same key topics in a current, engaging, and clinically relevant manner, FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSIOLOGY is briefer, lower in level, and requires less of a background in chemistry, physics, and math than its sister text. Essential content is organized around the central theme of homeostasis, as demonstrated by the system-specific homeostatic model that opens each chapter, as well as the "Focus on Homeostasis" that completes each chapter. New to this edition are process-oriented figures, created to aid today's visual learners. These figures include step-by-step descriptions summarizing and integrating various aspects of essential concepts. Another noteworthy addition is the comparative and early introduction of "Principles of Neural and Hormonal Communication"-a NEW Chapter 4. This edition also showcases an emphasis on real-life experiences, using analogies as well as new "Clinical Note" icons, which flag clinically relevant material. The text is also supported by PhysioEdge 2-arguably the best student CD-ROM on the market-which ties concepts and art together with narration and animation. This free CD-ROM has been revised to include new media exercises and tutorials, and is integrated with this Third Edition to encourage students make optimal use of the available media. Instructors are likely to find indispensable our Multimedia Manager with Instructor Resources-a CD containing ALL line art from the text, over 40 animations, electronic versions of instructor materials, and Microsoft? PowerPoint? lectures.

Homeostasis: The Foundation of Physiology

(17)

Introduction to Physiology

(1)

Levels of Organization in the Body

(6)

The chemical level: Various atoms and molecules make up the body

(1)

The cellular level: Cells are the basic units of life

(1)

The tissue level: Tissues are groups of cells of similar specialization

(1)

The organ level: An organ is a unit made up of several tissue types

(1)

The body system level: A body system is a collection of related organs

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Stem-Cell Science and Tissue Engineering: The Quest to Make Defective Body Parts Like New Again

(1)

The organism level: The body systems are packaged together into a functional whole body

(1)

Concept of Homeostasis

(5)

Body cells are in contact with a privately maintained internal environment

(1)

Body systems maintain homeostasis, a dynamic steady state in the internal environment

(4)

Homeostatic Control Systems

(6)

Homeostatic control systems may operate locally or bodywide

(1)

Negative feedback opposes an initial change and is widely used to maintain homeostasis

(1)

Positive feedback amplifies an initial change

(1)

Feedforward mechanisms initiate responses in anticipation of a change

(1)

Disruptions in homeostasis can lead to illness and death

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

(1)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

(1)

Points to Ponder

(1)

Clinical Consideration

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

(1)

Cell Physiology

(24)

Observations of Cells

(1)

An Overview of Cell Structure

(1)

The plasma membrane bounds the cell

(1)

The nucleus contains the DNA

(1)

The cytoplasm consists of various organelles and the cytosol

(1)

Endoplasmic Reticulum and Segregated Synthesis

(1)

The rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins for secretion and membrane construction

(1)

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum packages new proteins in transport vesicles

(1)

Golgi Complex and Exocytosis

(2)

Transport vesicles carry their cargo to the Golgi complex for further processing

(1)

The Golgi complex packages secretory vesicles for release by exocytosis

(1)

Lysosomes and Endocytosis

(2)

Lysosomes serve as the intracellular digestive system

(1)

Extracellular material is brought into the cell by phagocytosis for attack by lysosomal enzymes

(1)

Lysosomes remove useless but not useful parts of the cell

(1)

Peroxisomes and Detoxification

(1)

Peroxisomes house oxidative enzymes that detoxify various wastes

(1)

Mitochondria and ATP Production

(6)

Mitochondria, the energy organelles, are enclosed by a double membrane

(1)

Mitochondria play a major role in generating ATP

(2)

The cell generates more energy in aerobic than in anaerobic conditions

(3)

Beyond the Basics: Aerobic Exercise: What For and How Much?

(1)

The energy stored within ATP is used for synthesis, transport, and mechanical work

(1)

Vaults as Cellular Trucks

(1)

Vaults may serve as cellular transport vehicles

(1)

Cytosol: Cell Gel

(1)

The cytosol is important in intermediary metabolism, ribosomal protein synthesis, and nutrient storage

(1)

Cytoskeleton: Cell ``Bone and Muscle''

(8)

Microtubules help maintain asymmetric cell shapes and play a role in complex cell movements

(2)

Microfilaments are important to cell contractile systems and as mechanical stiffeners

(1)

Intermediate filaments are important in cell regions subject to mechanical stress

(1)

The cytoskeleton functions as an integrated whole and links other parts of the cell together

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

(1)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

(1)

Points to Ponder

(1)

Clinical Consideration

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

(1)

The Plasma Membrane and Membrane Potential

(28)

Membrane Structure and Composition

(4)

The plasma membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins

(2)

The lipid bilayer forms the basic structural barrier that encloses the cell

(1)

The membrane proteins perform a variety of specific membrane functions

(1)

The membrane carbohydrates serve as self-identity markers

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Cystic Fibrosis: A Fatal Defect in Membrane Transport

(1)

Cell-to-Cell Adhesions

(3)

The extracellular matrix serves as the biological ``glue.''

(1)

Some cells are directly linked together by specialized cell junctions

(2)

Overview of Membrane Transport

(1)

Unassisted Membrane Transport

(5)

Particles that can permeate the membrane passively diffuse down their concentration gradient

(2)

Ions that can permeate the membrane also passively move along their electrical gradient

(1)

Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient

(3)

Assisted Membrane Transport

(6)

Carrier-mediated transport is accomplished by a membrane carrier flipping its shape

(2)

Carrier-mediated transport may be passive or active

(2)

With vesicular transport, material is moved into or out of the cell wrapped in membrane

(2)

Membrane Potential

(9)

Membrane potential is a separation of opposite charges across the plasma membrane

(1)

Membrane potential is due to differences in the concentration and permeability of key ions

(5)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

(1)

Chapter Summary

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

(1)

Points to Ponder

(1)

Clinical Consideration

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

(1)

Principles of Neural and Hormonal Communication

(38)

Introduction to Neural Communication

(2)

Nerve and muscle are excitable tissues

(1)

Membrane potential decreases during depolarization and increases during hyperpolarization

(1)

Electrical signals are produced by changes in ion movement across the plasma membrane

(1)

Graded Potentials

(2)

The stronger a triggering event, the larger the resultant graded potential

(1)

Graded potentials spread by passive current flow

(1)

Graded potentials die out over short distances

(2)

Action Potentials

(10)

During an action potential, the membrane potential rapidly, transiently reverses

(1)

Marked changes in membrane permeability and ion movement lead to an action potential

(2)

The Na+ -K+ pump gradually restores the concentration gradients disrupted by action potentials

(1)

Action potentials are propagated from the axon hillock to the axon terminals

(2)

Once initiated, action potentials are conducted throughout a nerve fiber

(1)

The refractory period ensures one-way propagation of the action potential

(3)

Action potentials occur in all-or-none fashion

(1)

The strength of a stimulus is coded by the frequency of action potentials

(1)

Myelination increases the speed of conduction of action potentials

(2)

Synapses and Neuronal Integration

(7)

Synapses are junctions between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

(1)

A neurotransmitter carries the signal across a synapse

(1)

Some synapses excite whereas others inhibit the postsynaptic neuron

(2)

Each synapse is either always excitatory or always inhibitory

(1)

Neurotransmitters are quickly removed from the synaptic cleft

(1)

The grand postsynaptic potential depends on the sum of the activities of all presynaptic inputs

(2)

Action potentials are initiated at the axon hillock because it has the lowest threshold

(1)

Neuropeptides act primarily as neuromodulators

(1)

Drugs and diseases can modify synaptic transmission

(1)

Neurons are linked through complex converging and diverging pathways

(1)

Intercellular Communication and Signal Transduction

(3)

Communication between cells is largely orchestrated by extracellular chemical messengers

(2)

Extracellular chemical messengers bring about cell responses primarily by signal transduction

(1)

Some extracellular chemical messengers open chemically gated channels

(1)

Many extracellular messengers activate second-messenger pathways

(1)

Principles of Hormonal Communication

(7)

Hormones are chemically classified as being hydrophilic or lipophilic

(1)

The mechanisms of synthesis, storage, and secretion of hormones vary according to their chemical differences

(2)

Hydrophilic hormones dissolve in the plasma; lipophilic hormones are transported by plasma proteins

(1)

Hormones generally produce their effect by altering intracellular proteins

(1)

Hydrophilic hormones alter pre-existing proteins via second-messenger systems

(2)

Beyond the Basics: Programmed Cell Suicide: A Surprising Example of a Signal Transduction Pathway

100

(1)

By stimulating genes lipophilic hormones promote synthesis of new proteins

100

(2)

Hormonal responses are slower and longer than neural responses

102

(1)

Comparison of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

102

(6)

The nervous system is ``wired'' and the endocrine system is ``wireless.''

103

(1)

Neural specificity is due to anatomic proximity and endocrine specificity to receptor specialization

103

(1)

The nervous and endocrine systems have their own realms of authority but interact functionally

103

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

104

(1)

Chapter Summary

104

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

106

(1)

Points to Ponder

107

(1)

Clinical Consideration

107

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

107

(1)

The Central Nervous System

108

(36)

Organization of the Nervous System

110

(1)

The nervous system is organized into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

110

(1)

The three functional classes of neurons are afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneurons

110

(1)

Protection and Nourishment of the Brain

111

(3)

Glial cells support the interneurons physically, metabolically, and functionally

111

(2)

The delicate central nervous tissue is well protected

113

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Strokes: A Deadly Domino Effect

114

(1)

The brain depends on constant delivery of oxygen and glucose by the blood

114

(1)

Overview of the Central Nervous System

114

(2)

Cerebral Cortex

116

(7)

The cerebral cortex is an outer shell of gray matter covering an inner core of white matter

117

(1)

The four pairs of lobes in the cerebral cortex are specialized for different activities

117

(2)

The parietal lobes accomplish somatosensory processing

119

(1)

The primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobes

120

(1)

Other brain regions besides the primary motor cortex are important in motor control

120

(1)

Because of its plasticity, the brain can be remodeled in response to varying demands

121

(1)

Different regions of the cortex control different aspects of language

121

(1)

The association areas of the cortex are involved in many higher functions

122

(1)

The cerebral hemispheres have some degree of specialization

122

(1)

An electroencephalogram is a record of postsynaptic activity in cortical neurons

123

(1)

Basal Nuclei, Thalamus, and Hypothalamus

123

(3)

The basal nuclei play an important inhibitory role in motor control

123

(2)

The thalamus is a sensory relay station and is important in motor control

125

(1)

The hypothalamus regulates many homeostatic functions

125

(1)

The Limbic System and Its Functional Relations with the Higher Cortex

126

(4)

The limbic system plays a key role in emotion

126

(1)

The limbic system and higher cortex participate in controlling basic behavioral patterns

126

(1)

Motivated behaviors are goal directed

127

(1)

Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are neurotransmitters in pathways for emotions and behavior

127

(1)

Learning is the acquisition of knowledge as a result of experiences

128

(1)

Memory is laid down in stages

128

(1)

Memory traces are present in multiple regions of the brain

129

(1)

Short-term and long-term memory involve different molecular mechanisms

130

(1)

Cerebellum

130

(1)

The cerebellum is important in balance and in planning and executing voluntary movement

130

(1)

Brain Stem

131

(4)

The brain stem is a vital link between the spinal cord and higher brain regions

133

(1)

Sleep is an active process consisting of alternating periods of slow-wave and paradoxical sleep

133

(2)

The sleep-wake cycle is controlled by interactions among three neural systems

135

(1)

The function of sleep is unclear

135

(1)

Spinal Cord

135

(9)

The spinal cord extends through the vertebral canal and is connected to the spinal nerves

135

(1)

The white matter of the spinal cord is organized into tracts

136

(1)

Spinal nerves carry both afferent and efferent fibers

136

(1)

The spinal cord is responsible for the integration of many basic reflexes

137

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Swan Dive or Belly Flop: It's a Matter of CNS Control

138

(2)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

140

(1)

Chapter Summary

140

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

142

(1)

Points to Ponder

142

(1)

Clinical Consideration

143

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

143

(1)

The Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division; Special Senses

144

(40)

Introduction

145

(1)

Visceral afferents carry subconscious input whereas sensory afferents carry conscious input

145

(1)

Perception is the conscious awareness of surroundings derived from interpretation of sensory input

145

(1)

Receptor Physiology

146

(3)

Receptors have differential sensitivities to various stimuli

146

(1)

A stimulus alters the receptor's permeability, leading to a graded receptor potential

147

(1)

Receptor potentials may initiate action potentials in the afferent neuron

147

(1)

Receptors may adapt slowly or rapidly to sustained stimulation

148

(1)

Each somatosensory pathway is ``labeled'' according to modality and location

148

(1)

Acuity is influenced by receptive field size

148

(1)

Pain

149

(1)

Stimulation of nociceptors elicits the perception of pain plus motivational and emotional responses

149

(1)

The brain has a built-in analgesic system

150

(1)

Eye: Vision

150

(15)

Protective mechanisms help prevent eye injuries

150

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Acupuncture: Is It for Real?

151

(1)

The eye is a fluid-filled sphere enclosed by three specialized tissue layers

151

(1)

The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the iris

152

(1)

The eye refracts the entering light to focus the image on the retina

153

(2)

Accommodation increases the strength of the lens for near vision

155

(3)

Light must pass through several retinal layers before reaching the photoreceptors

158

(1)

Phototransduction by retinal cells converts light stimuli into neural signals

159

(1)

Rods provide indistinct gray vision at night, whereas cones provide sharp color vision during the day

160

(1)

The sensitivity of the eyes can vary markedly through dark and light adaptation

161

(1)

Color vision depends on the ratios of stimulation of the three cone types

162

(1)

Visual information is separated before reaching the visual cortex

162

(1)

The thalamus and visual cortexes elaborate the visual message

163

(2)

Visual input goes to other areas of the brain not involved in vision perception

165

(1)

Ear: Hearing and Equilibrium

165

(10)

Sound waves consist of alternate regions of compression and rarefaction of air molecules

166

(1)

The external ear plays a role in sound localization

167

(1)

The tympanic membrane vibrates in unison with sound waves in the external ear

167

(1)

The middle ear bones convert tympanic-membrane vibrations into fluid movements in the inner ear

168

(1)

The cochlea contains the organ of Corti, the sense organ for hearing

169

(1)

Hair cells in the organ of Corti transduce fluid movements into neural signals

169

(1)

Pitch discrimination depends on the region of the basilar membrane that vibrates

169

(2)

Loudness discrimination depends on the amplitude of vibration

171

(1)

Deafness is caused by defects either in conduction or neural processing of sound waves

172

(1)

The vestibular apparatus is important for equilibrium by detecting position and motion of the head

172

(3)

Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell

175

(9)

Taste receptor cells are located primarily within tongue taste buds

175

(2)

Taste discrimination is coded by patterns of activity in various taste bud receptors

177

(1)

The olfactory receptors in the nose are specialized endings of renewable afferent neurons

178

(1)

Various parts of an odor are detected by different olfactory receptors and sorted into ``smell files.''

178

(1)

Odor discrimination is coded by patterns of activity in the olfactory bulb glomeruli

179

(1)

The olfactory system adapts quickly

179

(1)

The vomeronasal organ detects pheromones

179

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

180

(1)

Chapter Summary

180

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

182

(1)

Points to Ponder

183

(1)

Clinical Consideration

183

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

183

(1)

The Peripheral Nervous System: Efferent Division

184

(18)

Introduction

185

(1)

Autonomic Nervous System

185

(7)

An autonomic nerve pathway consists of a two-neuron chain

185

(1)

Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release acetylcholine; sympathetic ones release norepinephrine

186

(1)

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems dually innervate most visceral organs

186

(4)

The adrenal medulla is a modified part of the sympathetic nervous system

190

(1)

Several different receptor types are available for each autonomic neurotransmitter

190

(1)

Many regions of the central nervous system are involved in the control of autonomic activities

191

(1)

Somatic Nervous System

192

(10)

Motor neurons supply skeletal muscle

192

(1)

Motor neurons are the final common pathway

192

(1)

Motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers are chemically linked at neuromuscular junctions

193

(1)

Acetylcholine is the neuromuscular junction neurotransmitter

193

(2)

Acetylcholinesterase terminates acetylcholine activity at the neuromuscular junction

195

(2)

The neuromuscular junction is vulnerable to several chemical agents and diseases

197

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Botulinum Toxin's Reputation Gets a Facelift

198

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

198

(1)

Chapter Summary

199

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

199

(1)

Points to Ponder

200

(1)

Clinical Consideration

200

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

201

(1)

Muscle Physiology

202

(38)

Introduction

203

(1)

Structure of Skeletal Muscle

204

(3)

Skeletal muscle fibers are striated by a highly organized internal arrangement

204

(1)

Myosin forms the thick filaments

204

(2)

Actin is the main structural component of the thin filaments

206

(1)

Molecular Basis of Skeletal Muscle Contraction

207

(6)

During contraction, cycles of cross-bridge binding and bending pull the thin filaments inward

207

(2)

Calcium is the link between excitation and contraction

209

(4)

Contractile activity far outlasts the electrical activity that initiated it

213

(1)

Skeletal Muscle Mechanics

213

(6)

Whole muscles are groups of muscle fibers bundled together and attached to bones

213

(1)

Contractions of a whole muscle can be of varying strength

214

(1)

The number of fibers contracting within a muscle depends on the extent of motor unit recruitment

214

(1)

The frequency of stimulation can influence the tension developed by each muscle fiber

214

(1)

Twitch summation results from a sustained elevation in cytosolic calcium

215

(1)

There is an optimal muscle length at which maximal tension can be developed

216

(1)

Muscle tension is transmitted to bone as the contractile component tightens the series-elastic component

217

(1)

The two primary types of contraction are isotonic and isometric

218

(1)

The velocity of shortening is related to the load

219

(1)

Skeletal Muscle Metabolism and Fiber Types

219

(4)

Muscle fibers have alternate pathways for forming ATP

219

(1)

Increased oxygen consumption is necessary to recover from exercise

220

(1)

There are three types of skeletal muscle fibers, based on differences in ATP hydrolysis and synthesis

220

(1)

Muscle fibers adapt considerably in response to the demands placed on them

221

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Are Athletes Who Use Steroids to Gain Competitive Advantage Really Winners or Losers?

222

(1)

Control of Motor Movement

223

(4)

Multiple neural inputs influence motor unit output

223

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Loss of Muscle Mass: A Plight of Space Flight

224

(1)

Muscle receptors provide afferent information needed to control skeletal muscle activity

225

(2)

Smooth and Cardiac Muscle

227

(13)

Smooth muscle cells are small and unstriated

227

(3)

Smooth muscle cells are turned on by Ca2+ -dependent phosphorylation of myosin

230

(1)

Multiunit smooth muscle is neurogenic

231

(1)

Single-unit smooth muscle cells form functional syncytia

231

(1)

Single-unit smooth muscle is myogenic

231

(1)

Gradation of single-unit smooth muscle contraction differs from that of skeletal muscle

232

(2)

Smooth muscle can still develop tension when stretched

234

(1)

Smooth muscle is slow and economical

234

(1)

Cardiac muscle blends features of both skeletal and smooth muscle

235

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

235

(1)

Chapter Summary

236

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

237

(1)

Points to Ponder

238

(1)

Clinical Consideration

239

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

239

(1)

Cardiac Physiology

240

(34)

Introduction

241

(1)

Anatomy of the Heart

242

(4)

The heart is a dual pump

242

(2)

Pressure-operated heart valves ensure that blood flows in the right direction through the heart

244

(1)

The heart walls consist primarily of spirally arranged cardiac muscle fibers

245

(1)

Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected by intercalated discs and form functional syncytia

245

(1)

Electrical Activity of the Heart

246

(9)

Cardiac autorhythmic cells display pacemaker activity

246

(1)

The sinoatrial node is the normal pacemaker of the heart

247

(2)

The spread of cardiac excitation is coordinated to ensure efficient pumping

249

(1)

The action potential of cardiac contractile cells shows a characteristic plateau

250

(1)

Ca2+ entry from the ECF induces a more abundant Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

251

(1)

A long refractory period prevents tetanus of cardiac muscle

252

(1)

The ECG is a record of the overall spread of electrical activity through the heart

252

(1)

Different parts of the ECG record can be correlated to specific cardiac events

253

(1)

The ECG can be used to diagnose abnormal heart rates, arrhythmias, and damage of heart muscle

254

(1)

Mechanical Events of the Cardiac Cycle

255

(4)

The heart alternately contracts to empty and relaxes to fill

255

(3)

The two heart sounds are associated with valve closures

258

(1)

Turbulent blood flow produces heart murmurs

258

(1)

Cardiac Output and Its Control

259

(6)

Cardiac output depends on the heart rate and the stroke volume

259

(1)

Heart rate is determined primarily by autonomic influences on the SA node

259

(2)

Stroke volume is determined by the extent of venous return and by sympathetic activity

261

(1)

Increased end-diastolic volume results in increased stroke volume

261

(1)

Sympathetic stimulation increases the contractility of the heart

262

(2)

In heart failure the contractility of the heart decreases

264

(1)

Nourishing the Heart Muscle

265

(9)

The heart receives most of its own blood supply through the coronary circulation during diastole

265

(1)

Atherosclerotic coronary artery disease can deprive the heart of essential oxygen

265

(3)

Beyond the Basics: Atherosclerosis: Cholesterol and Beyond

268

(2)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

270

(1)

Chapter Summary

270

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

271

(1)

Points to Ponder

272

(1)

Clinical Consideration

273

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

273

(1)

The Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure

274

(40)

Introduction

275

(5)

To maintain homeostasis, reconditioning organs receive blood flow in excess of their own needs

275

(1)

Blood flow through vessels depends on the pressure gradient and vascular resistance

276

(2)

The vascular tree consists of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins

278

(1)

Beyond the Basics: From Humors to Harvey: Historical Highlights in Circulation

279

(1)

Arteries

280

(3)

Arteries serve as rapid-transit passageways to the organs and as a pressure reservoir

280

(1)

Arterial pressure fluctuates in relation to ventricular systole and diastole

280

(1)

Blood pressure can be measured indirectly by using a sphygmomanometer

281

(2)

Mean arterial pressure is the main driving force for blood flow

283

(1)

Arterioles

283

(6)

Arterioles are the major resistance vessels

283

(1)

Local control of arteriolar radius is important in determining the distribution of cardiac output

284

(1)

Local metabolic influences on arteriolar radius help match blood flow with the organs' needs

285

(2)

Local histamine release pathologically dilates arterioles

287

(1)

Local physical influences on arteriolar radius include temperature changes and stretch

287

(1)

Extrinsic sympathetic control of arteriolar radius in important in regulating blood pressure

288

(1)

The medullary cardiovascular control center and several hormones regulate blood pressure

289

(1)

Capillaries

289

(9)

Capillaries are ideally suited to serve as sites of exchange

289

(2)

Water-filled capillary pores permit passage of small, water-soluble substances

291

(2)

Interstitial fluid is a passive intermediary between blood and cells

293

(1)

Diffusion across the capillary walls is important in solute exchange

293

(1)

Bulk flow across the capillary walls is important in extracellular fluid distribution

293

(2)

The lymphatic system is an accessory route by which interstitial fluid can be returned to the blood

295

(2)

Edema occurs when too much interstitial fluid accumulates

297

(1)

Veins

298

(4)

Veins serve as a blood reservoir as well as passageways back to the heart

298

(1)

Venous return is enhanced by a number of extrinsic factors

299

(3)

Blood Pressure

302

(12)

Blood pressure is regulated by controlling cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and blood volume

303

(2)

The baroreceptor reflex is an important short-term mechanism for regulating blood pressure

305

(1)

Hypertension is a serious national public health problem, but its causes are largely unknown

306

(2)

Orthostatic hypotension results from transient inadequate sympathetic activity

308

(1)

Circulatory shock can become irreversible

308

(2)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

310

(1)

Chapter Summary

310

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

312

(1)

Points to Ponder

313

(1)

Clinical Consideration

313

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

313

(1)

The Blood and Body Defenses

314

(50)

Introduction

315

(1)

Plasma

315

(2)

Plasma water is a transport medium for many inorganic and organic substances

316

(1)

Many of the functions of plasma are carried out by plasma proteins

316

(1)

Erythrocytes

317

(4)

The structure of erythrocytes is well suited to their main function of O2 transport in the blood

317

(1)

The bone marrow continuously replaces worn-out erythrocytes

318

(1)

Erythropoiesis is controlled by erythropoietin from the kidneys

318

(1)

Anemia can be caused by a variety of disorders

319

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Blood Doping: Is More of a Good Thing Better?

320

(1)

Polycythemia is an excess of circulating erythrocytes

320

(1)

Platelets and Hemostasis

321

(5)

Platelets are cell fragments shed from megakaryocytes

321

(1)

Hemostasis prevents blood loss from damaged small vessels

321

(1)

Vascular spasm reduces blood flow through an injured vessel

322

(1)

Platelets aggregate to form a plug at a vessel tear or cut

322

(1)

Clot formation results from a triggered chain reaction involving plasma clotting factors

323

(2)

Fibrinolytic plasmin dissolves clots

325

(1)

Inappropriate clotting produces thromboembolism

325

(1)

Hemophilia is the primary condition that produces excessive bleeding

326

(1)

Leukocytes

326

(4)

Pathogenic bacteria and viruses are the major targets of the immune system

326

(1)

There are five types of leukocytes

326

(1)

Leukocytes are produced at varying rates depending on the changing defense needs of the body

327

(2)

Immune responses may be either innate and nonspecific, or adaptive and specific

329

(1)

Innate Immunity

330

(5)

Inflammation is a nonspecific response to foreign invasion or tissue damage

330

(3)

NSAIDS and glucocorticoid drugs suppress the inflammatory response

333

(1)

Interferon transiently inhibits multiplication of viruses in most cells

333

(1)

Natural killer cells destroy virus-infected cells and cancer cells on first exposure to them

334

(1)

The complement system punches holes in micro-organisms

334

(1)

Adaptive Immunity: General Concepts

335

(1)

Adaptive immune responses include antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity

335

(1)

An antigen induces an immune response against itself

336

(1)

B Lymphocytes: Antibody-Mediated Immunity

336

(9)

Antigens stimulate B cells to convert into plasma cells that produce antibodies

336

(1)

Antibodies are Y-shaped and classified according to properties of their tail portion

337

(1)

Antibodies largely amplify innate immune responses to promote antigen destruction

338

(1)

Clonal selection accounts for the specificity of antibody production

338

(2)

Selected clones differentiate into active plasma cells and dormant memory cells

340

(1)

Blood types are a form of natural immunity

341

(2)

Beyond the Basics: Vaccination: A Victory Over Many Dreaded Diseases

343

(1)

Lymphocytes respond only to antigen presented to them by antigen-presenting cells

344

(1)

T Lymphocytes: Cell-Mediated Immunity

345

(7)

T cells bind directly with their targets

345

(1)

The two types of T cells are cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells

346

(1)

Cytotoxic T cells secrete chemicals that destroy target cells

347

(2)

Helper T cells secrete chemicals that amplify the activity of other immune cells

349

(1)

The immune system is normally tolerant of self-antigens

350

(1)

The major histocompatibility complex is the code for self-antigens

350

(1)

Immune surveillance against cancer cells involves an interplay among immune cells and interferon

351

(1)

Immune Diseases

352

(3)

Immune deficiency diseases result from insufficient immune responses

352

(1)

Allergies are inappropriate immune attacks against harmless environmental substances

353

(2)

External Defenses

355

(9)

The skin consists of an outer protective epidermis and an inner, connective tissue dermis

355

(1)

Specialized cells in the epidermis produce keratin and melanin and participate in immune defense

356

(1)

Protective measures within body cavities discourage pathogen invasion into the body

357

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

358

(1)

Chapter Summary

359

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

361

(1)

Points to Ponder

362

(1)

Clinical Consideration

362

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

363

(1)

The Respiratory System

364

(40)

Introduction

365

(4)

The respiratory system does not participate in all steps in respiration

365

(1)

The respiratory airways conduct air between the atmosphere and alveoli

366

(1)

The gas-exchanging alveoli are thin-walled, inflatable sacs encircled by pulmonary capillaries

367

(1)

The lungs occupy much of the thoracic cavity

368

(1)

A pleural sac separates each lung from the thoracic wall

369

(1)

Respiratory Mechanics

369

(14)

Interrelationships among pressures inside and outside the lungs are important in ventilation

369

(1)

The lungs are normally stretched to fill the larger thorax

370

(1)

Flow of air into and out of the lungs occurs because of cyclic changes in intra-alveolar pressure

371

(2)

Airway resistance influences airflow rates

373

(3)

Airway resistance is abnormally increased with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

376

(1)

Elastic behavior of the lungs is due to elastic connective tissue and alveolar surface tension

377

(1)

Pulmonary surfactant decreases surface tension and contributes to lung stability

377

(2)

The lungs normally operate at about ``half full.''

379

(1)

Alveolar ventilation is less than pulmonary ventilation because of dead space

380

(3)

Gas Exchange

383

(4)

Gases move down partial pressure gradients

383

(1)

Oxygen enters and CO2 leaves the blood in the lungs passively down partial pressure gradients

384

(1)

Factors other than the partial pressure gradient influence the rate of gas transfer

385

(1)

Gas exchange across the systemic capillaries also occurs down partial pressure gradients

386

(1)

Gas Transport

387

(7)

Most O2 in the blood is transported bound to hemoglobin

387

(1)

The PO2 is the primary factor determining the percent hemoglobin saturation

387

(2)

Hemoglobin promotes the net transfer of O2 at both the alveolar and tissue levels

389

(1)

Factors at the tissue level promote the unloading of O2 from hemoglobin

390

(1)

Hemoglobin has a much higher affinity for carbon monoxide than for O2

391

(1)

Most CO2 is transported in the blood as bicarbonate

391

(1)

Various respiratory states are characterized by abnormal blood-gas levels

392

(2)

Beyond the Basics: Effects of Heights and Depths on the Body

394

(1)

Control of Respiration

394

(10)

Respiratory centers in the brain stem establish a rhythmic breathing pattern

394

(2)

The magnitude of ventilation is adjusted in response to three chemical factors: PO2, PCO2, and H+

396

(1)

Decreased arterial PO2 increases ventilation only as an emergency mechanism

397

(1)

Carbon dioxide-generated H+ in the brain is normally the main regulator of ventilation

398

(1)

Adjustments in ventilation in response to changes in arterial H+ are important in acid-base balance

399

(1)

During apnea, a person ``forgets to breathe''; during dyspnea, a person feels ``short of breath.''

399

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

400

(1)

Chapter Summary

400

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

402

(1)

Points to Ponder

403

(1)

Clinical Consideration

403

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

403

(1)

The Urinary System

404

(38)

Introduction

405

(6)

The kidneys perform a variety of functions aimed at maintaining homeostasis

405

(1)

The kidneys form the urine; the rest of the urinary system carries the urine to the outside

406

(1)

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney

406

(2)

The three basic renal processes are glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion

408

(3)

Glomerular Filtration

411

(3)

Glomerular capillary blood pressure is the major force that induces glomerular filtration

411

(1)

Changes in the GFR primarily result from changes in glomerular capillary blood pressure

412

(2)

The kidneys normally receive 20 to 25% of the cardiac output

414

(1)

Tubular Reabsorption

414

(8)

Tubular reabsorption is tremendous, highly selective, and variable

414

(1)

Tubular reabsorption involves transepithelial transport

415

(1)

An active Na+ -K+ ATPase pump in the basolateral membrane is essential for Na+ reabsorption

415

(1)

Aldosterone stimulates Na+ reabsorption in the distal and collecting tubules

416

(2)

Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits Na+ reabsorption

418

(1)

Giucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by Na+ -dependent secondary active transport

419

(1)

In general, actively reabsorbed substances exhibit a tubular maximum

419

(1)

Glucose is an example of an actively reabsorbed substance that is not regulated by the kidneys

419

(1)

Phosphate is an example of an actively reabsorbed substance that is regulated by the kidneys

420

(1)

Active Na+ reabsorption is responsible for the passive reabsorption of Cl-, H2O, and urea

421

(1)

In general, unwanted waste products are not reabsorbed

422

(1)

Tubular Secretion

422

(2)

Hydrogen ion secretion is important in acid--base balance

422

(1)

Potassium secretion is controlled by aldosterone

422

(1)

Organic anion and cation secretion helps efficiently eliminate foreign compounds from the body

423

(1)

Urine Excretion and Plasma Clearance

424

(18)

Plasma clearance is the volume of plasma cleared of a particular substance per minute

424

(1)

If a substance is filtered but not reabsorbed or secreted, its plasma clearance rate equals the GFR

425

(1)

If a substance is filtered and reabsorbed but not secreted, its plasma clearance rate is always less than the GFR

425

(1)

If a substance is filtered and secreted but not reabsorbed, its plasma clearance rate is always greater than the GFR

425

(2)

The kidneys can excrete urine of varying concentrations depending on the body's state of hydration

427

(1)

The medullary vertical osmotic gradient is established by countercurrent multiplication

427

(2)

Vasopressin-controlled, variable H2O reabsorption occurs in the final tubular segments

429

(6)

Beyond the Basics: Dialysis: Cellophane Tubing or Abdominal Lining as an Artificial Kidney

435

(1)

Renal failure has wide-ranging consequences

435

(1)

Urine is temporarily stored in the bladder, from which it is emptied by micturition

436

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

437

(1)

Chapter Summary

438

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

439

(1)

Points to Ponder

440

(1)

Clinical Consideration

440

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

441

(1)

Fluid and Acid--Base Balance

442

(22)

Balance Concept

443

(1)

The internal pool of a substance is the amount of that substance in the ECF

443

(1)

To maintain stable balance of an ECF constituent, its input must equal its output

444

(1)

Fluid Balance

444

(9)

Body water is distributed between the ICF and ECF compartments

444

(1)

The plasma and interstitial fluid are similar in composition, but the ECF and ICF differ markedly

445

(1)

Fluid balance is maintained by regulating ECF volume and osmolarity

445

(1)

Controlling ECF volume is important in the long-term regulation of blood pressure

446

(1)

Controlling salt balance is primarily important in regulating ECF volume

447

(1)

Controlling ECF osmolarity prevents changes in ICF volume

448

(1)

Beyond the Basics: A Potentially Fatal Clash: When Exercising Muscles and Cooling Mechanisms Compete for an Inadequate Plasma Volume

449

(1)

During ECF hypertonicity, the cells shrink as H2O leaves them

449

(1)

During ECF hypotonicity, the cells swell as H2O enters them

450

(1)

Controlling water balance by means of vasopressin is important in regulating ECF osmolarity

450

(2)

Vasopressin secretion and thirst are largely triggered simultaneously

452

(1)

Acid--Base Balance

453

(11)

Acids liberate free hydrogen ions, whereas bases accept them

453

(1)

The pH designation is used to express [H+]

454

(1)

Fluctuations in [H+] alter nerve, enzyme, and K+ activity

455

(1)

Hydrogen ions are continually added to the body fluids as a result of metabolic activities

455

(1)

Chemical buffer systems minimize changes in pH by binding with or yielding free H+

456

(1)

The H2CO3:HCO3-buffer pair is the primary ECF buffer for noncarbonic acids

457

(1)

The protein buffer system is primarily important intracellularly

457

(1)

The hemoglobin buffer system buffers H+ generated from carbonic acid

457

(1)

The phosphate buffer system is an important urinary buffer

457

(1)

Chemical buffer systems act as the first line of defense against changes in [H+]

457

(1)

The respiratory system regulates [H+] by controlling the rate of CO2 removal

458

(1)

The respiratory system serves as the second line of defense against changes in [H+]

458

(1)

The kidneys help maintain acid--base balance by adjusting their rate of H+ excretion, HCO3 - excretion, and NH3 secretion

458

(2)

The kidneys are a powerful third line of defense against changes in [H+]

460

(1)

Acid--base imbalances can arise from either respiratory dysfunction or metabolic disturbances

460

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

461

(1)

Chapter Summary

461

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

462

(1)

Points to Ponder

463

(1)

Clinical Consideration

463

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

463

(1)

The Digestive System

464

(46)

Introduction

465

(6)

The digestive system performs four basic digestive processes

465

(2)

The digestive tract and accessory digestive organs make up the digestive system

467

(1)

The digestive tract wall has four layers

467

(2)

Regulation of digestive function is complex and synergistic

469

(2)

Receptor activation alters digestive activity through neural reflexes and hormonal pathways

471

(1)

Mouth

471

(2)

The oral cavity is the entrance to the digestive tract

471

(1)

The teeth do the chewing

472

(1)

Saliva begins carbohydrate digestion, is important in oral hygiene, and facilitates speech

472

(1)

Salivary secretion is continuous and can be reflexly increased

472

(1)

Digestion in the mouth is minimal; no absorption of nutrients occurs

473

(1)

Pharynx and Esophagus

473

(2)

Swallowing is a sequentially programmed all-or-none reflex

473

(1)

During the oropharyngeal stage of swallowing, food is prevented from entering the wrong passageways

474

(1)

The pharyngoesophageal sphincter prevents air from entering the digestive tract during breathing

474

(1)

Peristaltic waves push food through the esophagus

475

(1)

The gastroesophageal sphincter prevents reflux of gastric contents

475

(1)

Esophageal secretion is entirely protective

475

(1)

Stomach

475

(11)

The stomach stores food and begins protein digestion

476

(1)

Gastric filling involves receptive relaxation

476

(1)

Gastric storage takes place in the body of the stomach

476

(1)

Gastric mixing takes place in the antrum of the stomach

476

(1)

Gastric emptying is largely controlled by factors in the duodenum

477

(2)

Emotions can influence gastric motility

479

(1)

The stomach does not actively participate in vomiting

479

(2)

Gastric digestive juice is secreted by glands located at the base of gastric pits

481

(1)

Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen

481

(1)

Pepsinogen, once activated, begins protein digestion

481

(1)

Mucus is protective

481

(1)

Intrinsic factor is essential for absorption of vitamin B12

482

(1)

Multiple regulatory pathways influence the parietal and chief cells

482

(1)

Control of gastric secretion involves three phases

482

(1)

Gastric secretion gradually decreases as food empties from the stomach into the intestine

483

(1)

The gastric mucosal barrier protects the stomach lining from gastric secretions

484

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Ulcers: When Bugs Break the Barrier

485

(1)

Carbohydrate digestion continues in the body of the stomach; protein digestion begins in the antrum

486

(1)

The stomach absorbs alcohol and aspirin but no food

486

(1)

Pancreatic and Biliary Secretions

486

(7)

The pancreas is a mixture of exocrine and endocrine tissue

486

(1)

The exocrine pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and an aqueous alkaline fluid

486

(2)

Pancreatic exocrine secretion is regulated by secretin and CCK

488

(1)

The liver performs various important functions including bile production

488

(1)

The liver lobules are delineated by vascular and bile channels

489

(1)

Bile is continuously secreted by the liver and is diverted to the gallbladder between meals

489

(1)

Bile salts are recycled through the enterohepatic circulation

490

(1)

Bile salts aid fat digestion and absorption

491

(1)

Bilirubin is a waste product excreted in the bile

492

(1)

Bile salts are the most potent stimulus for increased bile secretion

492

(1)

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile between meals and empties during meals

493

(1)

Small Intestine

493

(9)

Segmentation contractions mix and slowly propel the chyme

493

(1)

The migrating motility complex sweeps the intestine clean between meals

494

(1)

The ileocecal juncture prevents contamination of the small intestine by colonic bacteria

494

(1)

Small-intestine secretions do not contain any digestive enzymes

494

(1)

The small-intestine enzymes complete digestion intracellularly

495

(1)

The small intestine is remarkably well adapted for its primary role in absorption

495

(3)

The mucosal lining experiences rapid turnover

498

(1)

Special mechanisms facilitate absorption of most nutrients

498

(3)

Most absorbed nutrients immediately pass through the liver for processing

501

(1)

Extensive absorption by the small intestine keeps pace with secretion

501

(1)

Diarrhea results in loss of fluid and electrolytes

501

(1)

Large Intestine

502

(2)

The large intestine is primarily a drying and storage organ

502

(1)

Haustral contractions slowly shuffle the colonic contents back and forth

502

(1)

Mass movements propel colonic contents long distances

502

(1)

Feces are eliminated by the defecation reflex

503

(1)

Constipation occurs when the feces become too dry

503

(1)

Large-intestine secretion is entirely protective

503

(1)

The colon contains myriads of beneficial bacteria

503

(1)

The large intestine absorbs salt and water, converting the luminal contents into feces

503

(1)

Intestinal gases are absorbed or expelled

504

(1)

Overview of the Gastrointestinal Hormones

504

(6)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

505

(1)

Chapter Summary

505

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

507

(1)

Points to Ponder

508

(1)

Clinical Consideration

508

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

509

(1)

Energy Balance and Temperature Regulation

510

(18)

Energy Balance

511

(7)

Most food energy is ultimately converted into heat in the body

511

(1)

The metabolic rate is the rate of energy use

512

(1)

Energy input must equal energy output to maintain a neutral energy balance

513

(1)

Food intake is controlled primarily by the hypothalamus

514

(2)

Obesity occurs when more kilocalories are consumed than are burned up

516

(1)

Beyond the Basics: What the Scales Don't Tell You

517

(1)

People suffering from anorexia nervosa have a pathologic fear of gaining weight

517

(1)

Temperature Regulation

518

(10)

Internal core temperature is homeostatically maintained at 100°F

518

(1)

Heat input must balance heat output to maintain a stable core temperature

518

(1)

Heat exchange takes place by radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation

519

(1)

The hypothalamus integrates a multitude of thermosensory inputs

520

(1)

Shivering is the primary involuntary means of increasing heat production

520

(1)

The magnitude of heat loss can be adjusted by varying the flow of blood through the skin

521

(1)

Beyond the Basics: The Extremes of Heat and Cold Can Be Fatal

522

(1)

The hypothalamus simultaneously coordinates heat production and heat loss mechanisms

522

(1)

During a fever, the hypothalamic thermostat is ``reset'' at an elevated temperature

523

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

524

(1)

Chapter Summary

524

(1)

Chapter Review Exercises

525

(1)

Points to Ponder

526

(1)

Clinical Consideration

526

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

527

(1)

The Endocrine System

528

(54)

General Principles of Endocrinology

529

(7)

Hormones exert a variety of regulatory effects throughout the body

530

(1)

The plasma concentration of a hormone is normally regulated by changes in its rate of secretion

530

(2)

The plasma concentration of a hormone is influenced by its rate of excretion

532

(1)

Endocrine disorders result from hormone excess or deficiency or decreased target-cell responsiveness

532

(1)

The responsiveness of a target cell can be varied by regulating the number of hormone-specific receptors

532

(4)

Pineal Gland and Circadian Rhythms

536

(1)

The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the master biological clock

536

(1)

Melatonin helps keep the body's circadian rhythms in time with the light-dark cycle

536

(1)

Hypothalamus and Pituitary

537

(5)

The pituitary gland consists of anterior and posterior lobes

537

(1)

The hypothalamus and posterior pituitary act as a unit to secrete vasopressin and oxytocin

537

(1)

Most anterior pituitary hormones are tropic

538

(2)

Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones help regulate anterior pituitary hormone secretion

540

(2)

Target gland hormones inhibit hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormone secretion via negative feedback

542

(1)

Endocrine Control of Growth

542

(5)

Growth depends on growth hormone but is influenced by other factors as well

542

(1)

Growth hormone is essential for growth, but it also exerts metabolic effects not related to growth

543

(1)

Bone grows in thickness and in length by different mechanisms, both stimulated by growth hormone

543

(1)

Growth hormone exerts its growth-promoting effects indirectly by stimulating somatomedins

544

(1)

Growth hormone secretion is regulated by two hypophysiotropic hormones

544

(1)

Abnormal growth-hormone secretion results in aberrant growth patterns

545

(2)

Beyond the Basics: Growth and Youth in a Bottle?

547

(1)

Thyroid Gland

547

(5)

The major cells that secrete thyroid hormone are organized into colloid-filled follicles

547

(1)

Thyroid hormone is synthesized and stored on the thyroglobulin molecule

548

(1)

To secrete thyroid hormone, the follicular cells phagocytize thyroglobulin-laden colloid

549

(1)

Most of the secreted T4 is converted into T3 outside the thyroid

550

(1)

Thyroid hormone is the main determinant of the basal metabolic rate and exerts other effects as well

550

(1)

Thyroid hormone is regulated by the hypothalamus-pituitarythyroid axis

550

(1)

Abnormalities of thyroid function include both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism

551

(1)

A goiter develops when the thyroid gland is overstimulated

552

(1)

Adrenal Glands

552

(8)

Each adrenal gland consists of a steroid-secreting cortex and a catecholamine-secreting medulla

552

(1)

The adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones

553

(1)

Mineralocorticoids' major effects are on Na+ and K+ balance and blood pressure homeostasis

553

(1)

Glucocorticoids exert metabolic effects and play a key role in adaptation to stress

554

(1)

Cortisol secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal cortex axis

555

(1)

The adrenal cortex secretes both male and female sex hormones in both sexes

556

(1)

The adrenal cortex may secrete too much or too little of any of its hormones

557

(1)

The adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic postganglionic neuron

558

(1)

Epinephrine reinforces the sympathetic nervous system and exerts additional metabolic effects

558

(1)

The stress response is a generalized pattern of reactions to any situation that threatens homeostasis

558

(2)

The multifaceted stress response is coordinated by the hypothalamus

560

(1)

Endocrine Control of Fuel Metabolism

560

(13)

Fuel metabolism includes anabolism, catabolism, and interconversions among energy-rich organic molecules

561

(1)

Because food intake is intermittent, nutrients must be stored for use between meals

562

(1)

The brain must be continuously supplied with glucose

563

(1)

Metabolic fuels are stored during the absorptive state and mobilized during the postabsorptive state

563

(1)

The pancreatic hormones, insulin and glucagon, are most important in regulating fuel metabolism

564

(1)

Insulin lowers blood glucose, fatty acid, and amino acid levels and promotes their storage

565

(1)

The primary stimulus for increased insulin secretion is an increase in blood glucose concentration

566

(1)

The symptoms of diabetes mellitus are characteristic of an exaggerated postabsorptive state

567

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Diabetics and Insulin: Some Have It and Some Don't

568

(2)

Insulin excess causes brain-starving hypoglycemia

570

(1)

Glucagon in general opposes the actions of insulin

571

(1)

Glucagon secretion is increased during the postabsorptive state

571

(1)

Insulin and glucagon work as a team to maintain blood glucose and fatty acid levels

571

(1)

Epinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone also exert direct metabolic effects

572

(1)

Endocrine Control of Calcium Metabolism

573

(9)

Plasma Ca2+ must be closely regulated to prevent changes in neuromuscular excitability

573

(1)

Parathyroid hormone raises free plasma Ca2+ levels by its effects on bone, kidneys, and intestine

573

(1)

Bone continuously undergoes remodeling

574

(1)

Mechanical stress favors bone deposition

574

(1)

PTH promotes the transfer of Ca2+ from bone to plasma

574

(1)

PTH acts on the kidneys to conserve Ca2+ and eliminate PO3-/4

575

(1)

PTH indirectly promotes absorption of Ca2+ and PO3-/4 by the intestine

575

(1)

The primary regulator of PTH secretion is the plasma concentration of free Ca2+

575

(1)

Calcitonin lowers the plasma Ca2+ concentration but is not important in the normal control of Ca2+ metabolism

575

(1)

Vitamin D is actually a hormone that increases calcium absorption in the intestine

576

(1)

Disorders in Ca2+ metabolism may arise from abnormal levels of PTH or vitamin D

576

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

577

(1)

Chapter Summary

577

(3)

Chapter Review Exercises

580

(1)

Points to Ponder

581

(1)

Clinical Consideration

581

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

581

(1)

The Reproductive System

582

Introduction

583

(5)

The reproductive system includes the gonads, reproductive tract, and accessory sex glands

583

(1)

Reproductive cells each contain a half set of chromosomes

584

(1)

Gametogenesis is accomplished by meiosis

585

(2)

The sex of an individual is determined by the combination of sex chromosomes

587

(1)

Sexual differentiation along male or female lines depends on the presence or absence of masculinizing determinants

587

(1)

Male Reproductive Physiology

588

(8)

The scrotal location of the testes provides a cooler environment essential for spermatogenesis

588

(1)

The testicular Leydig cells secrete masculinizing testosterone

589

(2)

Spermatogenesis yields an abundance of highly specialized, mobile sperm

591

(1)

Throughout their development, sperm remain intimately associated with Sertoli cells

592

(1)

LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary control testosterone secretion and spermatogenesis

593

(1)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone activity increases at puberty

594

(1)

The reproductive tract stores and concentrates sperm and increases their fertility

594

(1)

The accessory sex glands contribute the bulk of the semen

594

(1)

Prostaglandins are ubiquitous, locally acting chemical messengers

595

(1)

Sexual Intercourse Between Males and Females

596

(5)

The male sex act is characterized by erection and ejaculation

596

(1)

Erection is accomplished by penis vasocongestion

597

(2)

Ejaculation includes emission and expulsion

599

(1)

The female sexual cycle is very similar to the male cycle

599

(1)

Beyond the Basics: Environmental ``Estrogens'': Bad News for the Reproductive System

600

(1)

Female Reproductive Physiology

601

Complex cycling characterizes female reproductive physiology

601

(1)

The steps of gametogenesis are the same in both sexes but the timing and outcome differ sharply

601

(1)

The ovarian cycle consists of alternating follicular and luteal phases

602

(1)

The follicular phase is characterized by the development of maturing follicles

603

(2)

The luteal phase is characterized by the presence of a corpus luteum

605

(1)

The ovarian cycle is regulated by complex hormonal interactions

606

(3)

Cyclic uterine changes are caused by hormonal changes during the ovarian cycle

609

(1)

Pubertal changes in females are similar to those in males

610

(1)

Menopause is unique to females

610

(1)

The oviduct is the site of fertilization

611

(2)

The blastocyst implants in the endometrium through the action of its trophoblastic enzymes

613

(2)

The placenta is the organ of exchange between maternal and fetal blood

615

(1)

Beyond the Basics: The Ways and Means of Contraception

616

(1)

Hormones secreted by the placenta play a critical role in the maintenance of pregnancy

616

(3)

Maternal body systems respond to the increased demands of gestation

619

(1)

Changes during late gestation prepare for parturition

619

(1)

Scientists are closing in on the factors that trigger the onset of parturition

620

(2)

Parturition is accomplished by a positive-feedback cycle

622

(1)

Lactation requires multiple hormonal inputs

623

(2)

Breast-feeding is advantageous to both the infant and the mother

625

(1)

The end is a new beginning

626

(1)

Chapter in Perspective: Focus on Homeostasis

626

(1)

Chapter Summary

626

(2)

Chapter Review Exercises

628

(1)

Points to Ponder

629

(1)

Clinical Consideration

629

(1)

PhysioEdge Resources

629

Appendix A The Metric System

(2)

Appendix B A Review of Chemical Principles

(16)

Appendix C Storage, Replication, and Expression of Genetic Information

(12)

Appendix D The Chemistry of Acid--Base Balance

(8)

Appendix E Text References to Exercise Physiology

(1)

Appendix F Answers to End-of-Chapter Objective Questions, Points to Ponder, and Clinical Considerations

Glossary

(1)

Credits

(1)

Index

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Fundamentals of Physiology A Human Perspective (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

Fundamentals of Physiology A Human Perspective (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

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Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Fundamentals of Physiology A Human Perspective (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

Fundamentals of Physiology A Human Perspective (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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