Preface

CHAPTER 1 The Philosophical Enterprise

Objectives

Section 1.1 Explaining the Possibility of the Impossible: Philosophical Problems and Theories

Philosophical Problems

Metaphysics

Epistemology

Axiology

Logic

The Stakes in Philosophical Inquiry

The Mind-Body Problem

The Problem of Free Will

The Problem of Personal Identity

The Problem of Moral Relativism

The Problem of Evil

The Problem of Skepticism

Box: What Is Your Philosophy?

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Socrates and the Socratic Method

Box: In the News: The Oracle at Delphi

Box: Pre-Socratic Philosophers

Science and the Scientific Method

Box: The Laws of Thought

Logical versus Causal Possibility

Thought Probe: Possibilities

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 1.2 Evidence and Inference: Proving Your Point

Identifying Arguments

Deductive Arguments

Some Valid Argument Forms

Some Invalid Argument Forms

Inductive Arguments

Enumerative Induction

Analogical Induction

Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, Inference to the Best Explanation)

Informal Fallacies

Unacceptable Premises

Irrelevant Premises

Insufficient Premises Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 1.3 The Laboratory of the Mind: Thought Experiments

Thought Probe: Platonic Humans

Case Study: Explaining How Moral Abortions Are Possible

Thought Experiment: Warren’s Moral Space Traveler

Thought Probe: The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Robots

How Are Thought Experiments Possible?

Criticizing Thought Experiments

Conceivability and Possibility

Scientific Thought Experiments

Thought Experiment: Impossibility of Aristotle’s Theory of Motion

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Thought Experiment: Tooley’s Cat

Thought Experiment: Thomson’s Diseased Musician

Internet Inquiries

Readings

Bertrand Russell: The Value of Philosophy

Reading Questions

Brand Blanshard: The Philosophic Enterprise

Reading Questions

CHAPTER 2 The Mind-Body Problem

Thought Experiment: Descartes’ Mechanical Moron

Thought Experiment: Leibniz’s Mental Mill

Box: In the News: The Approaching Singularity

Thought Probe: Artificial Intelligence

Objectives

Section 2.1 The Ghost in the Machine: Mind as Soul

Descartes' Doubt

Thought Probe: Living in the Matrix

Box: René Descartes: Father of Modern Philosophy

I Think, Therefore I Am

The Conceivability Argument

Box: The Biblical Conception of the Person

Box: In the News: Descartes and Vivisection

The Divisibility Argument

The Problem of Interaction

Box: Parallelism: Occasionalism and the Preestablished Harmony

The Causal Closure of the Physical

Box: The Seat of the Soul

Thought Probe: Mental Relay Stations

The Problem of Other Minds

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 2.2 You Are What You Eat: Mind as Body

Empiricism

Box: David Hume: The Model Philosopher

Logical Positivism

Logical Behaviorism

Box: Ryle’s Category Mistake

Thought Experiment: Ryle’s University Seeker

Thought Experiment: The Perfect Pretender

Thought Experiment: Putnam’s Super-Spartans

Box: Behavioral Therapy

Thought Experiment: Chisholm's Expectant Nephew

The Identity Theory

Thought Probe: The Ultimate Lie Detector

Identity and Indiscernibility

Conscious Experience

Box: Do You Use Only 10% of Your Brain?

Thought Experiment: Nagel’s Bat

Thought Experiment: Lewis’s Pained Martian

Thought Experiment: Putnam’s Conscious Computer

Thought Probe: Speciesism

Thought Experiment: Searle’s Brain Replacement

Box: In the News: Neural Chips

Thought Probe: Neural Prostheses

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Thought Experiment: Your Mother, the Zombie

Internet Inquiries

Section 2.3 I, Robot: Mind as Software

Artificial Intelligence

Functionalism and Feeling

Thought Experiment: Lewis’s Pained Madman

Thought Experiment: Block’s Chinese Nation

Thought Experiment: Putnam’s Inverted Spectrum

Box: Inverted Spectra and Pseudonormal Vision

Thought Probe: Pseudonormal Vision

The Turing Test

Thought Experiment: The Imitation Game

Box: Alan Turing: Father of Code and Computers

Thought Experiment: Searle’s Chinese Room

Box: Connectionism

Thought Experiment: Searle’s Chinese Gym

Thought Probe: Total Turing Test

Intentionality

Thought Experiment: Block’s Conversational Jukebox

Thought Probe: Devout Robots

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 2.4 There Ain't No Such Things as Ghosts: Mind as MythThought Experiment: Rorty’s Demons

Folk Psychology

Thought Experiment: Searle’s Chevrolet Station Wagon

Subjective Knowledge

Thought Experiment: Jackson’s Color-Challenged Scientist

Box: In the News: Seeing Color for the First Time

Thought Probe: Seeing Color

Thought Experiment: Zombies

Thought Probe: Zombies

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 2.5 The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts: Mind as Quality

Primitive Intentionality

Box: The Double Aspect Theory

Thought Experiment: Jacquette’s Intentionality Test

Panpsychism

Emergentism

Box: An Emergent God?

Thought Probe: Pan-en-theism

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Readings

René Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy: Meditation II

Reading Questions

David M. Armstrong: The Mind-Brain Identity Theory

Reading Questions

David Chalmers: The Puzzle of Concious Experience

Reading Questions

Terry Bisson: They're Made of Meat

Reading Questions

CHAPTER 3 Free Will and Determinism

Box: In the Courts: The Devil Made Me Do It

Objectives

Section 3.1 The Luck of the Draw: Freedom as Chance

Hard Determinism

Thought Experiment: Laplace’s Superbeing

The Consequence Argument

Box: Freedom and Foreknowledge

Thought Probe: Freedom and Foreknowledge

Box: Fatalism versus Causal Determinism

Thought Probe: The Book of Life

Science and the Nature/Nurture Debate Determinism

Thought Probe: Behavior Modification

Box: Faking Free Will

Thought Probe: Faking Free Will

Box: Is Determinism Self-Refuting?

Thought Probe: Defending Determinism

Thought Probe: Genetic Engineering

Thought Experiment: Gardner’s Random Bombardier

Common Sense and Causal Determinism

Thought Probe: Living with Hard Determinism

Indeterminism

Box: William James: Physiologist, Psychologist, Philosopher

Thought Experiment: Taylor’s Unpredictable Arm

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Thought Experiment: Newcomb’s Paradox

Internet Inquiries

Section 3.2 The Mother of Invention: Freedom as Necessity

Thought Experiment: Locke’s Trapped Conversationalist

Traditional Compatibilism

Box: Thomas Hobbes: The Great Materialist Punishment Prepunishment

Thought Probe: Minority Report

Thought Experiment: Taylor’s Ingenious Physiologist

Box: In the News: Guilty Minds and Pre-Crime

Thought Probe: Guilty Minds and Pre-Crime

Thought Experiment: Taylor’s Drug Addiction

Thought Probe: Religious Cults

Hierarchical Compatibilism

Box: In the Courts: Government-Sponsored Brainwashing

Thought Probe: The Manchurian Candidate

Box: Better Living through Neurophysiology

Thought Probe: Brain Stimulation

Thought Experiment: Frankfurt’s Unwilling and Wanton Addicts

Thought Experiment: Frankfurt’s Happy Addict

Thought Experiment: Frankfurt's Decision Inducer

Thought Experiment: Slote’s Hypnotized Patient

Thought Probe: The Willing Bank Teller

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 3.3 Control Yourself: Freedom as Self-Determination

The Case for Freedom

The Argument from Experience

The Argument from Deliberation

The Neurophysiological Challenge

Thought Probe: Is Free Won’t Enough for Free Will?

Agent Causation

Box: Sartre and Smullyan on Free Will

Thought Probe: Self-Consciousness and Free Will

Thought Probe: Free Androids

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Readings

Richard Dawkins: Let's All Stop Beating Basil's Car

Reading Questions

W. T. Stace: The Problem of Free Will

Reading Questions

John Dupre: The Solution to the Provlem of the Freedom of the Will

Reading Questions

Geoffrey Klempner: The Black Box

Reading Questions

CHAPTER 4 The Problem of Personal Identity

Box: In the Courts: Kathleen Soliah, a.k.a. Sara Jane Olson

Thought Probe: A Different Person

Section 4.1 We Are Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On: Self as Substance

Thought Probe: Hobbes’s Ship of Theseus

Persons

Thought Probe: Dolphins

Animalism

Thought Experiment: The Vegetable Case

Box: In the News: Eternal Life through Cloning

Thought Probe: Safe Cloning

Thought Experiment: Benjamin’s Questionable Cure

Box: The Definition of Death

Thought Probe: Permanently Unconscious

Thought Experiment: Locke’s Tale of the Prince and the Cobbler

Thought Experiment: The Transplant Case

Thought Experiment: Unger’s Great Pain

Box: In the Courts: Multiple-Personality Disorder

Thought Probe: Multiple Personalities

The Soul Theory

Box: St. Augustine: Soul Man

Thought Experiment: The King of China

Box: Transubstantiation

Thought Experiment: Nestor and Thersites

Thought Experiment: Kant’s Soul Switch

Thought Probe: Souls in Heaven

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 4.2 Golden Memories: Self as Psyche

The Memory Theory

Box: John Locke: The Great Empiricist

Box: In the Courts: Sleepwalking and Murder

Thought Probe: Sleepwalking and Murder

Thought Probe: Memory Damping

The Inconsistency Objection

Thought Experiment: Reid’s Tale of the Brave Officerand Senile General

Thought Probe: Were You Ever a Fetus?

The Circularity Objection

Box: In the News: Soul Catcher

Thought Probe: Soul Catcher

Thought Probe: Merging of the Minds

The Insufficiency Objection

The Psychological Continuity Theory

Thought Probe: Is Darth Vader Anakin Skywalker?

The Reduplication Problem I: Reincarnation

Thought Experiment: Williams’s Reincarnation of Guy Fawkes

Thought Experiment: Williams’s Reduplication Argument

The Reduplication Problem II: Teletransportation

Thought Experiment: Parfit’s Transporter Tale

Box: Quantum Teleportation

Thought Probe: Transporter Travel

Thought Probe: Can You Go to Heaven?

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Thought Experiment: Bodily Torture

Internet Inquiries

Section 4.3 You Can't Step into the Same River Twice: Self as Process

The Brain Theory

Thought Experiment: Shoemaker’s Brain Transplant

Box: A Brain Is a Terrible Thing to Waste

Thought Probe: Body Transplants

Split Brains

Box: Alien Hand Syndrome

Thought Probe: Who Is Behind the Hand?

Thought Experiment: Parfit’s Division

Closest Continuer Theories

Box: Buddhists on the Self and Nirvana

Thought Probe: Branch Lines

Identity and What Matters in Survival

Identity and What Matters in Responsibility

Thought Experiment: Parfit’s Reformed Nobelist

Explaining the Self

Thought Probe: Robert and Frank

Moral Agents, Narratives, and Persons

Thought Probe: Being Clive Wearing

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Readings

John Locke: Of Identity and Diversity

Reading Questions

Derek Parfit: Divided Minds and the Nature of Persons

Reading Questions

Ray Kurzweil: Live Forever

Reading Questions

CHAPTER 5 The Problem of Relativism and Morality

Objectives

Section 5.1 Don't Question Authority: Might Makes Right

Subjective Absolutism

Subjective Relativism

Emotivism

Thought Experiment: Blanshard’s Rabbit

Cultural Relativism

Box: In the News: Universal Human Rights

The Anthropological Argument

The Logical Structure of Moral Judgments

Thought Probe: When in Rome

The Divine Command Theory

Box: In the Courts: God Is My Attorney

Thought Probe: Commanded to Kill

Box: The Fortunes of Hell

Are There Universal Moral Principles?

Box: Moral Children

Thought Probe: Moral Children

Thought Probe: Moral Knowledge

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 5.2 The End Justifies the Means: Good Makes Right

Box: Is Life Intrinsically Valuable?

Thought Probe: Moral Justification

Ethical Egoism

Box: Ayn Rand on the Virtue of Selfishness

Thought Experiment: Feinberg’s Single-Minded Hedonist

Act-Utilitarianism

Box: Jeremy Bentham: Making Philosophy Do Work

Thought Probe: Animal Rights

Problems with Rights

Thought Experiment: McCloskey’s Utilitarian Informant

Thought Experiment: Brandt’s Utilitarian Heir

Problems with Duties

Thought Experiment: Ross’s Unhappy Promise

Box: In the News: Killing Disabled Babies

Thought Probe: Singer’s Preference Utilitarianism

Thought Experiment: Godwin’s Fire Rescue

Problems with Justice

Thought Experiment: Ewing’s Utilitarian Torture

Thought Experiment: Ewing’s Innocent Criminal

Thought Probe: The Utility Machine

Rule-Utilitarianism

Thought Experiment: Nozick’s Experience Machine

Thought Probe: Beneficial Drugs

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Thought Experiment: Williams’s South American Showdown

Thought Experiment: Thomson’s Trolley Problem

Thought Experiment: Thomson’s Transplant Problem

Internet Inquiries

Section 5.3 Much Obliged: Duty Makes Right

Kant's Categorical Imperative

The First Formulation

Box: Immanuel Kant: Small-Town Genius

Thought Experiment: Hare’s Nazi Fanatic

Thought Experiment: Ross’s Good Samaritan

The Second Formulation

Box: In the News: Kant, Mill, and the War in Iraq

Thought Probe: War

Thought Experiment: Broad’s Typhoid Man

Thought Experiment: Ewing’s Prudent Diplomat

Thought Probe: Easy Rescue

Ross's Prima Facie Duties

Thought Probe: Desert Island Bequest

Rawls's Contractarianism

Thought Probe: Just Policies

Nozick's Libertarianism

Thought Experiment: Nozick’s Basketball Player

Thought Probe: Consensual Cannibalism

Justice, the State, and the Social Contract

Hobbes

Locke

Nozick

Thought Experiment: Widerquist's Libertarian Monarchy

Thought Probe: Libertarian Government

The Ethics of Care

Box: In the News: Jillian’s Choice

Thought Probe: Jillian’s Choice

Thought Probe: Lying with Care

Making Ethical Decisions

Thought Probe: The Zygmanik Brothers

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 5.4 Character is Destiny: Virtue Makes Right

The Virtuous Utilitarian

The Virtuous Kantian

Thought Experiment: Stocker’s Hospitalized Patient

The Purpose of Morality

Box: Children without a Conscience

Thought Probe: Empathy and Agency

Aristotle on Virtue

Box: Aristotle: Pillar of Western Thought

Box: The Buddha on Virtue

MacIntyre on Virtue

Nussbaum on Virtue

Thought Probe: Medical Treatment

Virtue Ethics

Thought Probe: The Ring of Gyges

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Readings

W. T. Stace: Are Ethical Values Relative?

Reading Questions

Jeremy Bentham: Of the Principle of Utility

Reading Questions

Immanuel Kant: Good Will, Duty, and the Categorical Imperative

Reading Questions

Martha Nussbaum: Non-Relative Virtues

Reading Questions

Ursula K. Leguin: The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas

Reading Questions

CHAPTER 6 The Problem of Evil and the Existence of God

Box: Biblical Archaeology

Thought Probe: Biblical Truths

Box: Religious Adherents

Thought Probe: Deluded Believers

Thought Probe: Holy Scripture

Objectives

Section 6.1 The Mysterious Universe: God as Creator

The Traditional Cosmological Argument

Box: Thomas Aquinas

The Kalam Cosmological Argument

Thought Probe: Why a Universe?

The Teleological Argument

The Analogical Design Argument

Thought Experiment: Paley’s Watch

The Best-Explanation Design Argument

Box: In the Courts: Is Evolution Just a Theory?

Box: Extraterrestrial Design

Thought Probe: Intelligent Design

Box: Creationism and Morality

Thought Probe: Human Design Flaws

The Argument from Miracles

Box: Parting the Red Sea

Thought Probe: Parting the Red Sea

Box: Was Jesus a Magician?

Thought Probe: Jesus’s Miracles

Thought Probe: The Fivefold Challenge

The Argument from Religious Experience

Box: This Is Your Brain on God

Thought Probe: Religious Experience

The Ontological Argument

Anselm’s Ontological Argument

Thought Experiment: Gaunilo’s Lost Island

Descartes’ Ontological Argument

Thought Experiment: Edwards’s Gangle

Thought Probe: One More God

Pascal's Wager

Thought Experiment: Pascal’s Wager

Box: Silverman’s Wager

Thought Probe: The Best Bet

Thought Probe: Alien Religion

God and Science

Thought Probe: Goulder vs. Augustine

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 6.2 When Bad Things Happen to Good People: God as Troublemaker

Thought Experiment: Rowe’s Fawn

St. Augustine and the Free-Will Defense

Box: Karma and the Problem of Inequality

Thought Probe: Karma

Thought Probe: Is There Free Will in Heaven?

The Knowledge Defense

The Ideal-Humanity Defense

Box: In the News: Natural Evil

The Soul-Building Defense

The Finite-God Defense

Thought Probe: What If God Died?

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Thought Experiment: The Invisible Gardener

Internet Inquiries

Section 6.3 Faith and Meaning: Believing the Unbelievable

The Leap of Faith

Thought Probe: Kierkegaard and Russell

Evidentialism

Thought Probe: Blanshard’s Beliefs

The Will to Believe

Thought Probe: James and Pandeism

The Meaning of Life

Thought Experiment: God’s Plan

Thought Probe: Meaning and Morality

Existentialism

Thought Probe: Meaning and Purpose

Religion without God

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Readings

St. Thomas Aquinas: The Five Ways

Reading Questions

Richard Swinburne: Natural Theology

Reading Questions

David Hume: Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion

Reading Questions

B.C. Johnson: God and the Problem of Evil

Reading Questions

Michael Martin: The Miracle Sleuth

Reading Questions

CHAPTER 7 The Problem of Skepticism and Knowledge

Objectives

Section 7.1 Things Aren't Always What They Seem: Skepticism about Skepticism

Greek Rationalism

Parmenides

Thought Probe: Thinking about Nothing

Zeno

Thought Experiment: Zeno’s Paradox of Bisection

Plato

Box: Solving Parmenides’ and Zeno’s Paradoxes

Thought Probe: Innate Knowledge

Cartesian SkepticismCartesian Doubt

Thought Experiment: Descartes’ Dream Argument

Thought Probe: Dreams and Reality

Thought Experiment: Descartes’ Evil Genius Argument

Thought Experiment: Unger’s Mad Scientist Cartesian Certainty

Reasonable Doubt

The Empiricist Alternative

The Problem of Induction

Thought Probe: Science and Faith

The Kantian Synthesis

Thought Probe: Constructing Reality

Mystical Experience

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 7.2 Facing Reality: Perception and the External World

Direct Realism

Representative Realism

Thought Probe: Hypothesizing the External World

Phenomenalism

Thought Experiment: The Inconceivability of the Unconceived

Box: George Berkeley: The Ultimate Empiricist

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Section 7.3 What Do You Know? Knowing What Knowledge Is

Thought Experiment: Gettier’s Guy in Barcelona

The Defeasibility Theory

Thought Experiment: Lehrer and Paxson’s Demented Mrs. Grabit

The Causal Theory

Thought Experiment: Goldman’s Fake Barns

The Reliability Theory

Thought Experiment: Lehrer’s Human Thermometer

Virtue Perspectivism

The Explanationist Theory

Summary

Study Questions

Discussion Questions

Internet Inquiries

Readings

Rene Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy: Meditation 1

Reading Questions

Bertrand Russell: On Induction

Reading Questions

Ernest Sosa: Virtue Perspectivism

Reading Questions

Thomas D. Davis: Why Don't You Just Wake Up?

Reading Questions

Notes

Credits

Index