Critical Thinking : Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life

ISBN 13:
9780131149625
ISBN 10:
0131149628
Edition: 2nd
Format: Paperback
Copyright: 01/01/2006
Publisher: Prentice Hall
Newer Edition

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Summary

Like its parent text, Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life, Second Edition, this book focuses on an integrated, universal concept of critical thinking that is both substantive and practical; it provides readers with the basic intellectual skills they need to think through content in any class, subject, or discipline, and through any problems or issues they face.

Preface

xiii

Introduction

xvii

A Startup Definition of Critical Thinking

xvii

How Skilled Are You as a Thinker?

xviii

Good Thinking Requires Hard Work

Defining Critical Thinking

xxiii

The Concept of Critical Thinking

xxiv

Become a Critic of Your Thinking

xxv

Establish New Habits of Thought

xxvi

Develop Confidence in Your Ability to Reason and Figure Things Out

xxvii

Become A Fair-Minded Thinker

(24)

Weak Versus Strong Critical Thinking

(4)

What Does Fair-Mindedness Require?

(15)

Intellectual Humility: Strive to Discover the Extent of Your Ignorance

(2)

Intellectual Courage: Develop the Courage to Challenge Popular Beliefs

(2)

Intellectual Empathy: Learn to Enter Opposing Views Empathically

(2)

Intellectual Integrity: Hold Yourself to the Same Standards to Which You Hold Others

(2)

Intellectual Perseverance: Refuse to Give Up Easily; Work Your Way Through Complexities and Frustration

(1)

Confidence in Reason: Respect Evidence and Reasoning, and Value Them as Tools for Discovering the Truth

(3)

Intellectual Autonomy: Value Independence of Thought

(2)

Recognize the Interdependence of Intellectual Virtues

(2)

Conclusion

(2)

The First Four Stages of Development: At What Level of Thinking Would You Place Yourself?

(16)

Stage 1: The Unreflective Thinker

(2)

Stage 2: The Challenged Thinker

(2)

Stage 3: The Beginning Thinker

(4)

Stage 4: The Practicing Thinker

(1)

A ``Game Plan'' for Improvement

(1)

A Game Plan for Devising a Game Plan

(6)

Integrating Strategies One by One

(2)

Self-Understanding

(12)

Monitor the Egocentrism in Your Thought and Life

(1)

Make a Commitment to Fair-Mindedness

(1)

Recognize the Mind's Three Distinctive Functions

(1)

Understand That You Have a Special Relationship to Your Mind

(4)

Connect Academic Subjects to Your Life and Problems

(1)

Learn Both Intellectually and Emotionally

(3)

The Parts of Thinking

(34)

Reasoning Is Everywhere in Human Life

(1)

Reasoning Has Parts

(2)

A First Look at the Elements of Thought

(5)

An Everyday Example: Jack and Jill

(1)

Analysis of the Example

(1)

How the Parts of Thinking Fit Together

(1)

The Relationship Between the Elements

(1)

The Best Thinkers Think to Some Purpose

(1)

The Best Thinkers Take Command of Concepts

(3)

The Best Thinkers Assess Information

(5)

Inert Information

(1)

Activated Ignorance

(1)

Activated Knowledge

(3)

The Best Thinkers Distinguish Between Inferences and Assumptions

(7)

The Best Thinkers Think-Through Implications

(2)

The Best Thinkers Think Across Points of View

(2)

The Point of View of the Critical Thinker

(1)

Conclusion

(2)

The Standards for Thinking

(30)

Take a Deeper Look at Universal Intellectual Standards

(11)

Clarity

(1)

Accuracy

(2)

Precision

(1)

Relevance

(1)

Depth

(1)

Breadth

(1)

Logicalness

(1)

Significance

(1)

Fairness

(3)

Bring Together the Elements of Reasoning and the Intellectual Standards

(7)

Purpose, Goal, or End in View

100

(1)

Question at Issue or Problem to Be Solved

101

(1)

Point of View, or Frame of Reference

102

(1)

Information, Data, Experiences

102

(1)

Concepts, Theories, Ideas

103

(1)

Assumptions

104

(1)

Implications and Consequences

105

(1)

Inferences

105

(1)

Brief Guidelines for Using Intellectual Standards

106

(11)

Ask Questions That Lead To Good Thinking

117

(20)

The Importance of Questioning

118

(1)

Questioning Your Questions

118

(2)

Dead Questions Reflect Inert Minds

120

(1)

Three Categories of Questions

120

(4)

Become a Socratic Questioner

124

(11)

Focus Your Thinking on the Type of Question Being Asked

126

(1)

Focus Your Questions on Universal Intellectual Standards for Thought

127

(2)

Focus Your Questions on the Elements of Thought

129

(2)

Focus Your Questions on Prior Questions

131

(2)

Focus Your Questions on Domains of Thinking

133

(2)

Conclusion

135

(2)

Master the Thinking, Master the Content

137

(10)

Go Beyond Superficial Memorization to Deep Learning

138

(1)

The Relation of Content to Thinking

139

(1)

Understand Content Through Thinking and Thinking-Through Content

140

(7)

All Content Is Organized by Concepts

141

(1)

All Content Is Logically Interdependent

142

(2)

A Caution

144

(3)

Discover How the Best Thinkers Learn

147

(28)

18 Ideas for Improving Your Studies

148

(1)

The Logic of a Typical College Class

149

(5)

Becoming a Skilled Thinker

151

(1)

The Design of a Typical College Class and the Typical College Student

152

(2)

Figure Out the Underlying Concept of Your Courses

154

(1)

Figure Out the Form of Thinking Essential to Courses or Subjects

155

(2)

Think Within the Logic of the Subject

157

(1)

A Case: The Logic of Biochemistry

158

(4)

Make the Design of the Course Work for You

162

(7)

Sample Course: American History, 1600--1800

164

(5)

Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening, and Thinking

169

(1)

Figure Out the Logic of an Article or Essay

170

(2)

Figure Out the Logic of a Textbook

172

(1)

Criteria for Evaluating an Author's Reasoning

173

(2)

Redefine Grades As Levels of Thinking and Learning

175

(10)

Develop Strategies for Self-Assessment

176

(1)

Use Student Profiles to Assess Your Performance

176

(4)

Exemplary Students (Grade of A)

177

(1)

High-Performing Students (Grade of B)

177

(1)

Mixed-Quality Students (Grade of C)

178

(1)

Low-Performing Students (Grade of D or F)

179

(1)

Apply Student Profiles to Assess Your Performance Within Specific Disciplines

180

(3)

Exemplary Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of A)

180

(1)

High-Performing Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of B)

181

(1)

Mixed-Quality Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of C)

181

(1)

Low-Performing Thinking as a Student of Psychology (Grade of D or F)

182

(1)

Conclusion

183

(2)

Make Decisions and Solve Problems

185

(26)

Making Decisions

185

(9)

Evaluating Patterns in Decision-Making

186

(1)

``Big'' Decisions

187

(1)

The Logic of Decision-Making

187

(3)

Dimensions of Decision-Making

190

(1)

The Early Decisions (2-11 Years of Age)

191

(1)

Adolescent Decisions (12-17 Years of Age)

192

(2)

Solving Problems

194

(15)

Becoming an Activist Problem-Solver

194

(2)

Evaluating Patterns in Your Problem-Solving

196

(1)

``Big'' Problems

197

(1)

Dimensions of Problem-Solving

197

(6)

Avoiding the Pitfalls of Problem-Solving

203

(2)

Analyzing Problems Using the Elements of Thought

205

(3)

The Art of Problem-Solving

208

(1)

Conclusion

209

(2)

Deal With Your Irrational Mind

211

(38)

Take Charge of Your Egocentric Nature

212

(26)

Understand Egocentric Thinking

214

(2)

Understand Egocentrism as a Mind Within the Mind

216

(2)

Successful Egocentric Thinking

218

(1)

Unsuccessful Egocentric Thinking

219

(3)

Rational Thinking

222

(4)

Two Egocentric Functions

226

(9)

Pathological Tendencies of the Human Mind

235

(1)

Challenge the Pathological Tendencies of Your Mind

236

(2)

The Challenge of Rationality

238

(1)

Take Charge of Your Sociocentric Tendencies

238

(10)

The Nature of Sociocentrism

240

(3)

Social Stratification

243

(1)

Sociocentric Thinking Is Unconscious and Potentially Dangerous

244

(1)

Sociocentric Uses of Language

245

(1)

Disclose Sociocentric Thinking Through Conceptual Analysis

246

(1)

Reveal Ideology at Work Through Conceptual Analysis

246

(2)

Conclusion

248

(1)

Detect Media Bias and Propaganda in National and World News

249

(42)

Democracy and the News Media

250

(2)

Myths That Obscure the Logic of the News Media

252

(1)

``Objectivity'' in the News Media

252

(5)

Points of View

254

(1)

Forms of Objectivity

255

(2)

The Perception of Bias in the Mainstream

257

(3)

Propaganda and News Story Writing

257

(2)

Protecting the Home Audience from Guilt Feelings

259

(1)

Fostering Sociocentric Thinking

260

(2)

Slanting Stories to Favor Privileged Views

262

(11)

How to Obtain Useful Information from Propaganda and Standard News Stories

265

(1)

Steps in Becoming a Critical Consumer of the ``News''

266

(1)

Media Awareness of Media Bias

267

(3)

The Bias Toward Novelty and Sensationalism

270

(1)

Critical Consumers of the News

271

(1)

Questions for the News Media

272

(1)

Finding Alternative Sources of Information

273

(1)

Becoming an Independent Thinker

274

(14)

Buried, Ignored, or Underreported Stories

276

(11)

Using the Internet

287

(1)

Additional Alternative News Sources

288

(1)

Conclusion

288

(3)

Recognize Fallacies: The Art of Mental Trickery and Manipulation

291

(46)

Truth and Deception in the Human Mind

292

(1)

Three Types of Thinkers

293

(2)

Uncritical Persons (intellectually unskilled thinkers)

293

(1)

Skilled Manipulators (weak-sense critical thinkers)

293

(1)

Fair-Minded Critical Persons (strong-sense critical thinkers)

294

(1)

The Concept of Fallacies of Thought

295

(3)

Naming Fallacies

296

(1)

Mistakes Versus Fallacies

297

(1)

No Exhaustive List of Fallacies

297

(1)

Faulty Generalizations

298

(3)

Analyzing Generalizations

301

(5)

Post Hoc Generalizations

304

(1)

Analogies and Metaphors

305

(1)

44 Foul Ways to Win an Argument

306

(18)

Fallacy Detection: Analyzing a Speech from the Past

324

(4)

Fallacy Detection: Analyzing a Current Presidential Speech

328

(4)

Fallacy Detection: Analyzing a Speech from a Presidential Candidate

332

(2)

Avoid Two Extremes

334

(1)

Conclusion

335

(2)

Develop as an Ethical Reasoner

337

(22)

Why People Are Confused About Ethics

337

(3)

The Fundamentals of Ethical Reasoning

340

(17)

Ethical Concepts and Principles

341

(3)

The Universal Nature of Ethical Principles

344

(3)

Distinguishing Ethics from Other Domains of Thinking

347

(8)

Understanding Our Native Selfishness

355

(2)

Conclusion

357

(2)

Learn and Use Information Critically and Ethically: Part One: Critique of Disciplines

359

(20)

The Ideal of Knowledge Acquisition

359

(1)

True Loyalty to a Discipline

360

(1)

The Gap Between Fact and Ideal

361

(2)

The Ideal Compared to the Real

363

(1)

The Ideal of Mathematics: Abstract Quantification

364

(3)

The Pain and Suffering of Those Who Fail

365

(1)

Loss of Self-Esteem and Opportunity to Receive Higher Education

365

(1)

Low Level of Math Competency of Those Who Pass School Examinations

366

(1)

The Ideal of Science: Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, Biology

367

(3)

The Ideal of Science: History, Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, Psychology

370

(4)

The Social Sciences as Taught and Practiced

373

(1)

The Ideal of the Arts and Humanities: Music, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Dance, Literature, Philosophy

374

(3)

The Promise of the Fine Arts and Literature

374

(1)

The Reality of Instruction in the Fine Arts and Literature

374

(1)

The Promise of Philosophy

375

(1)

The Reality of Philosophy

376

(1)

Conclusion

377

(2)

Learn and Use Information Critically and Ethically: Part Two: Method and a Model Case

379

(26)

Realistic Understanding

380

(1)

Be a Critic, Not a Cynic

381

(1)

Recognize the Mental Nature of Knowledge

382

(1)

Develop Awareness of the Harm that Results from Misuse of Information

383

(3)

Question Academic and ``Expert'' Information

386

(2)

Question the Status of Knowledge in a Field

388

(1)

A Model Case: Questioning Psychology and the Mental Health Professions

388

(3)

Psychology as an Ideal

390

(1)

Psychology as Taught and Practiced

390

(1)

The Milgram Experiment

391

(2)

Scientific Studies in Psychology

393

(1)

A Dark Side of the Mental Health Professions

394

(1)

Legitimizing Deeply Held Social Beliefs

395

(4)

Questioning Psychotherapy

399

(2)

Learning from Suspect Claims of Psychology and the Mental Health Professions

401

(1)

Thinking Psychologically: A Postscript

402

(3)

Strategic Thinking: Part One

405

(16)

Understanding and Using Strategic Thinking

405

(3)

Components of Strategic Thinking

408

(1)

The Beginnings of Strategic Thinking

408

(13)

Key Idea #1: Thoughts, Feelings, and Desires Are Interdependent

409

(3)

Key Idea #2: There Is a Logic to This, and You Can Figure It Out

412

(6)

Key Idea #3: For Thinking to Be of High Quality, We Must Routinely Assess It

418

(3)

Strategic Thinking: Part Two

421

(18)

Key Idea #4: Our Native Egocentrism Is a Default Mechanism

421

(4)

Key Idea #5: We Must Become Sensitive to the Egocentrism of Those Around Us

425

(2)

Key Idea #6: The Mind Tends to Generalize Beyond the Original Experience

427

(2)

Key Idea #7: Egocentric Thinking Appears to the Mind as Rational

429

(2)

Key Idea #8: The Egocentric Mind Is Automatic in Nature

431

(1)

Key Idea #9: We Often Pursue Power Through Dominating or Submissive Behavior

432

(2)

Key Idea #10: Humans Are Naturally Sociocentric Animals

434

(2)

Key Idea #11: Developing Rationality Requires Work

436

(1)

Conclusion

437

(2)

Becoming An Advanced Thinker: Our Conclusion

439

(40)

Practicing Skilled Thinking

439

(1)

Stage 5: Reaching the Advanced Stage of Development

440

(3)

Stage 6: Becoming a Master Thinker

443

(1)

Qualities of Mind of a Master Thinker

444

(2)

The Inner Logic of the Master Thinker

446

(1)

The Ideal Thinker

446

(4)

Appendices

A Critical Questions About Critical Thinking

450

(16)

B Sample Analysis of ``The Logic of. . .''

466

(9)

C Article: ``Iraq Is a Pediatrician's Hell: No Way to Stop the Dying''

475

(4)

Glossary

479

(22)

References

501

(2)

Index

503

Critical Thinking : Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life

9780131149625

0131149628

Summary

Table of Contents

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Critical Thinking : Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life

9780131149625

0131149628

Summary

Table of Contents

Excerpts

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