The classic reference, expanded and updated to include the latest technologies and laws

This new edition of Brown's Boundary Control and Legal Principles — the classic reference to boundary law for property surveying—has been updated and expanded to reflect ongoing changes in surveying technology and surveying law.

Professional surveying practices continue to evolve, and this Seventh Edition includes all the necessary information to navigate the complex, evolving area of boundary law. Improving upon its usefulness for both professionals and students alike, this Seventh Edition features:

• Updated case law and examples throughout
• Recent changes in boundary law
• New chapter on riparian and littoral boundaries by water boundary expert George Cole
• A new appendix listing surveying books referenced in court cases and legal decisions
• The latest innovations in surveying technology

This must-have reference to surveying and geodesy features a wealth of case studies on federal and state nonsectionalized land surveys demonstrating real-world examples of covered material. Brown's Boundary Control and Legal Principles, Seventh Edition is an essential reference tool for professional surveyors studying for state surveying licensing, students, and attorneys in real estate and land law.

Walter G. Robillard is a Principal at Land Consultants, Inc.

Donald A. Wilson is a Principal at Land & Boundary Consultants, Inc.

The late Curtis M. Brown was a partner at Brown Hall in Sacramento, California.

PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION xvii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix

CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND CONCEPT OF BOUNDARIES 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Significance of Boundaries 3

1.3 Boundary References 4

1.4 Terminus: The God (or Goddess) of Boundaries 6

1.5 Disputes and Boundaries 7

1.6 Role of the Surveyor in Boundaries 9

1.7 What Is Being Created? What Is Being Located? 13

1.8 Original Written Title 15

1.9 Rights and Interests in Land Are Composed of a Bundle of Rights 16

1.10 Role of the Court 19

1.11 Real and Personal Property 20

1.12 What Constitutes Real Property 21

1.13 Nature of Modern Estates 24

1.14 Taxes on Land and Tax Maps 25

1.15 Easements and Licenses 25

1.16 Servitudes, Restrictions, Covenants, and Conditions 29

1.17 Actions on Boundaries and Easements 30

1.18 One Unique Parcel or Boundary 31

1.19 The Original Boundaries Are Sacred 31

1.20 Conclusions 32

CHAPTER 2 HOW BOUNDARIES ARE CREATED 35

2.1 Introduction 35

2.2 Definitions 36

2.3 Classification of Boundaries 39

2.4 Methods of Boundary Creation 40

2.5 Who May Create Boundaries? 43

2.6 Sanctity of the Original Survey 47

2.7 Original Lines Remain Fixed 47

2.8 Distinctions between the Original Boundary Survey, the Retracement Survey, and the First Survey 48

2.9 Original Technological Methods of Boundary Creation Not Relatable to Modern Methods 49

2.10 Original Lines May Be Redescribed As a Result of a Retracement 50

2.11 Conclusions 50

CHAPTER 3 OWNERSHIP, TRANSFER, AND DESCRIPTION OF REAL PROPERTY AND ACCOMPANYING RIGHTS 53

3.1 Concepts of Boundaries, Land Ownership, and Land Descriptions 53

3.2 Overview of Boundaries 55

3.3 Public and Private Lands 58

3.4 Sources of Title 59

3.5 Voluntary Transfer of Real Property 60

3.6 Chain of Title 60

3.7 Torrens Title System 61

3.8 Unwritten Rights or Title to Land 62

3.9 Methods of Voluntary Transfer of Title 63

3.10 Deed or Description 64

3.11 Title or Lien 65

3.12 Deed of Trust 65

3.13 Mortgage 65

3.14 Escrow 66

3.15 Title Assurance and Title Insurance 66

3.16 Abstractors 67

3.17 Attorney’s Opinion 68

3.18 General Land Descriptions 68

3.19 What Is in a Description? 68

3.20 Measurements 69

3.21 Magnetic Directions 74

3.22 Reference Datums 75

3.23 Elements of Land Descriptions 77

3.24 Types of Descriptions 77

3.25 Conclusions 80

CHAPTER 4 BOUNDARIES, LAW, AND RELATED PRESUMPTIONS 81

4.1 Introduction 81

4.2 Constitutional Law and the Surveyor 82

4.3 Jurisdiction 83

4.4 Federal Jurisdiction 83

4.5 Federal Government, Agency, or Officer as a Party 84

4.6 Sovereign Immunity 84

4.7 United States as a Defendant 85

4.8 Disposing of Federal Lands 85

4.9 Color of Title Act 85

4.10 Public Law 120 86

4.11 Small Tracts Act 86

4.12 Researching the Laws 86

4.13 Court Reports 87

4.14 Legal Research 88

4.15 Judicial Notice 89

4.16 Evidence 90

4.17 Presumptions 92

4.18 Common Presumptions 93

4.19 Survey Systems Present in the United States 94

4.20 Conclusions 97

CHAPTER 5 CREATION AND INTERPRETATION OF METES AND BOUNDS AND OTHER NONSECTIONALIZED DESCRIPTIONS 99

5.1 Introduction 99

5.2 Methods of Creating Metes and Bounds or Nonsectionalized Descriptions 103

5.3 Metes Descriptions 103

5.4 Bounds Descriptions 106

5.5 Combination Metes and Bounds Descriptions 107

5.6 Strip Descriptions and Stationing 108

5.7 Descriptions by Reference 109

5.8 Aliquot Descriptions 109

5.9 Other Means of Creating Boundaries in Descriptions 111

5.10 Nomenclature in Metes and Bounds Descriptions 113

5.11 Adjoiners 121

5.12 Deed Terms for Curves 121

5.13 Lines and Their Elements 123

5.14 Tax Descriptions and Abbreviated Descriptions 130

5.15 Subdivision Descriptions 132

5.16 Parcels Created by Protraction 134

5.17 Features of Platting Acts 134

5.18 Writing Land Descriptions 135

5.19 Early Surveys 135

5.20 Priority of Calls in Metes and Bounds Surveys 138

5.21 Applying Priority Calls 139

5.22 Conclusions 141

CHAPTER 6 CREATION AND RETRACEMENT OF GLO BOUNDARIES 143

6.1 Introduction 143

6.2 Original Surveys and Corrective Surveys 146

6.3 Law, Manuals, and Special Instructions 146

6.4 Effect of Manuals on Resurveys 147

6.5 History of the Public Land Survey System 148

6.6 Testing Ground: The Seven Ranges 149

6.7 Act of May 18, 1796—Clarification of 1785 154

6.8 Acts of 1800 156

6.9 1803—The System Explodes 159

6.10 Act of March 26, 1804 160

6.11 Act of February 11, 1805 160

6.12 Land Surveys after 1805 163

6.13 Survey Instructions 164

6.14 State Instructions and Statutes 169

6.15 Instruments Used 177

6.16 Field Notes 179

6.17 Nomenclature for Sections 179

6.18 Meandering 179

6.19 Resurveys and Retracements 179

6.20 Defective Boundaries Encountered in Resurveys 181

6.21 Sectionalized Surveys and Innovations 182

6.22 Irregular Original Government Subdivisions 182

6.23 Townships Other Than Regular 182

6.24 Summary of the GLO System 184

CHAPTER 7 FEDERAL AND STATE NONSECTIONALIZED LAND SURVEYS 188

7.1 Introduction 188

7.2 Early New England and Other Colonial-Era Surveys 189

7.3 Ohio Company of Associates 192

7.4 Donation Tract 193

7.5 Symmes Purchase 193

7.6 Virginia Military District 194

7.7 United States Military Tract 195

7.8 Connecticut Western Reserve and Firelands 195

7.9 Moravian Tracts 196

7.10 Florida Keys Survey 196

7.11 Donation Land Claims 197

7.12 Exchange Surveys and Their Status 197

7.13 Prior Land Grants from Foreign Governments 197

7.14 French Grants in the Louisiana Purchase 198

7.15 Mississippi Townships 202

7.16 Soldier’s Additional Homestead 203

7.17 Indian Allotment Surveys 203

7.18 National Forest Homestead Entry 203

7.19 Tennessee Townships 203

7.20 Florida: Forbes Company Purchase Surveys 205

7.21 Georgia Lot System 206

Surveys in the Noncontinental United States 210

7.22 General Comments 210

7.23 Hawaiian Land Laws 210

7.24 Puerto Rican Land Surveys 213

7.25 Federal Mineral Surveys: General Comments 216

7.26 Water and Mineral Right Laws 216

7.27 Land Open to Appropriation of Minerals 217

7.28 Veins, Lodes, or Ledges 217

7.29 Extralateral and Intralimital Rights 218

7.30 Mill Sites 220

7.31 Tunnel Locations 220

7.32 Size of Claims 220

7.33 Discovery 221

7.34 Locations 221

7.35 Possession 222

7.36 Annual Expenditures 222

7.37 Requirements for Patent 222

7.38 United States Mineral Surveyors 223

7.39 Survey of the Claim 223

7.40 Conclusions 224

CHAPTER 8 LOCATING EASEMENTS AND REVERSIONS 226

8.1 Introduction 226

8.2 Rights Granted 229

8.3 Fee Title or Easement Right 232

8.4 Three Easement Descriptions and Three Boundaries 233

8.5 Ownership of the Bed of Easements 233

8.6 Surveyor’s Responsibility as to Easements 233

8.7 Requirements for Locating Easements 234

8.8 Centerline Presumption 235

8.9 Conveyances with Private Way Boundaries 236

8.10 Use of Easements 237

8.11 Revival of Public Easements 237

8.12 Creation of Easement Boundaries 237

8.13 Dividing Private Street Ownership 240

8.14 Words Used in Centerline Conveyances 241

8.15 Apportioning Reversion Rights 241

8.16 General Principle of Reversion 242

8.17 Reversion Rights of a Lot on a Curved Street 243

8.18 Lots Adjoining Two Subdivision Boundaries 244

8.19 Lots at an Angle Point in a Road 245

8.20 Indeterminate Situations 246

8.21 Exceptions to the Rules of Apportionment 247

8.22 Describing Vacated Streets and Easements 248

8.23 Litigating Easements 250

8.24 Conclusions 250

CHAPTER 9 RIPARIAN AND LITTORAL BOUNDARIES 252

9.1 Introduction 252

9.2 Ownership of the Seas 256

9.3 Ownership of the U.S. Territorial Sea 256

9.4 Ownership of Interior Tidal Waters of the United States 258

9.5 Landward Boundary of Tidal Waters 259

9.6 Ownership of Nontidal Navigable Waters 262

9.7 Landward Boundaries of Nontidal Waters 263

9.8 Significance of Public Land Survey Meander Lines 264

9.9 Ownership of Non–Publicly Owned Submerged Lands 266

9.10 Swamp and Overflowed Lands 267

9.11 Navigational Servitude 268

9.12 Public Regulation of Riparian and Littoral Lands 268

9.13 Shoreline Changes and Water Boundaries 270

9.14 Apportionment of Riparian and Littoral Rights 272

9.15 Emergent or Omitted Islands 277

9.16 Water Boundaries other Than Sea 277

9.17 Major Recognized Areas 278

9.18 Conclusions and Recommendations 278

CHAPTER 10 RETRACING AND “RESURVEYING” SECTIONALIZED LANDS 281

10.1 Introduction 281

10.2 Areas of Authority 286

10.3 Resurvey or Retracement 287

10.4 Types of Surveys and Resurveys 288

10.5 Court of Proper Jurisdiction 290

10.6 Federal Patents 291

10.7 Intent of the Government 291

10.8 Senior Rights 291

10.9 Following the Footsteps 292

10.10 Lines Marked and Surveyed 293

10.11 Original Corners 293

10.12 Original Field Notes and Plats 294

10.13 Closing Corners 296

10.14 Identification of Corners and Lines 296

10.15 Monuments and Their Identification 297

10.16 Evidence of Corners 298

10.17 Use of Testimony in Boundaries 299

10.18 Common Usage 300

10.19 Using Recorded Information to Locate Original Lines 301

10.20 Proportioning: The Last Resort 301

10.21 Relocating Lost Corners 302

10.22 Proportionate Measure or Proration 303

10.23 Single Proportionate Measurement 304

10.24 Double Proportionate Measurement 305

10.25 Restoration of Lost Standard Corners on Standard Parallels, Correction Lines, and Baselines 306

10.26 Restoration of Lost Township Corners on Principal Meridians and Guide Meridians 307

10.27 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Originally Established with Cross-Ties in Four Directions 307

10.28 Restoration of Lost Corners along Township Lines 308

10.29 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Where the Line Was Not Established in One Direction 308

10.30 Restoration of Lost Corners Where the Intersecting Lines Have Been Established in Only Two Directions 309

10.31 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners in Regular Sections 310

10.32 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners Where Only Part of a Section Was Surveyed Originally 310

10.33 Restoration of a Closing Section Corner on a Standard Parallel 311

10.34 Restoration of a Lost North Quarter Corner in a Closing Section 312

10.35 Restoration of Lost Nonriparian Meander Corners 313

10.36 Restoration of Riparian Meander Lines 314

10.37 Restoration of Nonriparian Meander Lines 314

10.38 Restoration of Irregular Exteriors 315

10.39 Lost Corner Restoration Methods 315

10.40 Resurvey Instructions Issued in 1879 and 1883 316

10.41 Half-Mile Posts in Florida and Alabama 317

Subdivision of Sections 317

10.42 General Comments 317

10.43 Subdivision by Protraction 318

10.44 Establishing the North Quarter Corner of Closing Sections on a Standard Parallel and Other Quarter
Corners Not Originally Set 318

10.45 Establishment of Centerlines and Center Quarter Corners 320

10.46 Establishment of Quarter-Quarter Section Lines and Corners 321

10.47 Fractional Sections Centerline 322

10.48 Senior Right of Lines 322

10.49 Gross Errors and Erroneously Omitted Areas 323

10.50 Relocating Corners from Other Townships or from Interior Corners 325

10.51 Procedures for Conducting Retracements 325

10.52 Interpretation of Aliquot Descriptions 327

10.53 According to the Government Measure 329

Differences Between State and Federal Interpretations 329

10.54 Applying State Laws 329

10.55 Topography 330

10.56 Boundaries by Area 330

10.57 Establishing Corners 331

10.58 Sections Created under State Jurisdiction 332

10.59 Presumptions and Realities for GLO Surveys 333

10.60 Conclusions 335

CHAPTER 11 LOCATING SEQUENTIAL CONVEYANCES 337

11.1 Introduction 337

11.2 Definition of Sequential Conveyances 340

11.3 Simultaneous Conveyances 341

11.4 Possession 342

11.5 Sequential Patents 342

11.6 Importance of Knowledge 342

11.7 Junior and Senior Rights between Private Parties 343

11.8 Deeds Must Be in Writing and Deemed to Be Whole 344

11.9 Direction of the Survey 345

11.10 Terms of the Deed 345

11.11 Call for a Plat 346

11.12 Informative and Controlling Terms 346

Order of Importance of Conflicting Title Elements 347

11.13 General Comments 347

11.14 Senior Rights 349

11.15 Call for an Adjoiner 350

11.16 Written Intentions of the Parties to the Deed 350

11.17 Aids to Interpret the Intent of a Deed 352

11.18 Control of Unwritten Title Lines 352

11.19 Lines Marked and Surveyed 353

11.20 Corner Definitions 355

11.21 Control of Monuments 355

11.22 Control between Conflicting Monuments 357

11.23 Explanation of the Principles 358

11.24 Importance of the Word “To” 362

11.25 Dignity of Record Monuments 362

11.26 Control Point of a Monument 363

11.27 Uncalled-For Monuments 363

11.28 Error or Mistake in a Description 364

11.29 Control of Bearing and Distance 365

11.30 Control of Either Bearing or Distance 365

11.31 Distribution of Errors in Several Boundary Lines 368

11.32 Cardinal Directions 369

11.33 Unrestricted General Terms 370

11.34 Direction of Survey 371

11.35 Area or Surface 371

11.36 Point of Beginning 372

11.37 Construed Most Strongly against Grantor 372

11.38 Errors and Ambiguous Terms 373

11.39 Coordinates 374

11.40 Direct Line Measurement 374

11.41 Treatment of Curves 375

11.42 First Stated Conditions 376

11.43 Written and Character Numbers 376

11.44 Unit Implied 376

11.45 Feet and Inches 376

11.46 General and Particular Provisions 377

Basis of Bearings 378

11.47 Deflection Method versus Compass Bearings 378

11.48 Summary, Interpretation of the Principles, and Conclusion 381

CHAPTER 12 LOCATING SIMULTANEOUSLY CREATED BOUNDARIES 386

12.1 Introduction 386

12.2 Defining Subdivisions 389

Subdivision Boundaries and Corners 390

12.3 Aliquot Part Subdivision 390

12.4 Controlling Boundaries 391

12.5 Subdivision Macro Boundary Wrongly Monumented 393

12.6 Subdivision Boundaries Incorrectly Described 393

Conflicting Elements in Descriptions 394

12.7 General Comments 394

12.8 Original Method of Creating Lots 394

12.9 Intention of the Parties 394

12.10 Finality of Original Lines 395

12.11 Control of Original Monuments within Subdivision Boundaries 396

12.12 Title Monuments 398

12.13 Control of Monuments Over Plats 398

12.14 Certainty of Monument Identification 398

12.15 Record Description of Monuments 399

12.16 Principles for Presumed Control Between Conflicting Monuments within Subdivisions 399

12.17 Explaining Principles 400

12.18 Introduction to Proportioning 404

Establishment of Streets 405

12.19 General Comments 405

12.20 Establishment of Streets by Natural Monuments 405

12.21 Establishment of Streets and Alleys by Artificial Monuments and Lines Actually Run at the Time of Making the Plat 405

12.22 Establishment of Streets by Improvements 407

12.23 Establishment of Streets by the Line of a Nearby Street 408

12.24 Establishment of Streets by Plat 409

12.25 Establishment of Streets Where Width Is Not Given 410

12.26 Establishment of Streets by City Engineers’ Monuments 410

Establishment of Lots within Subdivisions 412

12.27 Effect of Mathematical Error 412

12.28 Excess or Deficiency 413

12.29 Proration: A Rule of Last Resort 413

12.30 Excess or Deficiency Confined to a Block 414

12.31 Excess or Deficiency Distribution within Blocks 415

12.32 Single Proportionate Measure 415

12.33 Single Proportionate Measure on Curves 416

12.34 Distribution of Excess and Deficiency Beyond a Monument 418

12.35 Establishment of Lots Where the End Lot Measurement Is Not Given 419

12.36 Remnant Principle 419

12.37 Establishment of Lots Where No Lot measurement Is Given 424

12.38 Establishment of Lots with Area Only Given 424

12.39 New York Rule For Establishment of Lots 424

12.40 Summary of Proration Rules 428

12.41 Establishment of Lots Adjoining Subdivision Boundaries 428

12.42 Establishment of Lots Adjoining a Subdivision Correctly Established 429

12.43 Establishment of Lots Overlapping the True Subdivision Boundaries 429

12.44 Establishment of Lots Not Touching the True Boundary of the Subdivision 430

12.45 Proration of Excess and Deficiency in Blocks Closing on Subdivision Boundaries 431

12.46 Locating Lots from Boundary Lines 432

12.47 Obliterated and Lost Subdivisions 432

Proceedings in Partition 433

12.48 General Comments 433

12.49 Establishment of Lines Determined by Proceedings in Partition 433

12.50 Establishment of Boundaries of Allottees of Wills 434

12.51 Deed Divisions 434

12.52 Comments 434

CHAPTER 13 LOCATING COMBINATION DESCRIPTIONS AND CONVEYANCES 436

13.1 Introduction 436

“Of” Descriptions 438

13.2 “Of,” “In,” and “At” Descriptions within Subdivisions and Adjoining Streets 438

13.3 “Of” Descriptions within Metes and Bounds Descriptions and Adjoining Streets 440

13.4 Direction of Measurement 443

13.5 Proportional “Of” Conveyance 444

13.6 Exception by One-Half by Area 445

13.7 Indeterminate Proportional Conveyances 445

13.8 Angular Direction of the Dividing Line in “Of” Descriptions 446

13.9 Acreage “Of” Descriptions 449

13.10 Ambiguity 450

Overlaps and Gaps 454

13.11 Calls from Two Directions 454

Establishment of Property Described by Both Metes and Bounds and Subdivision Descriptions 454

13.12 Double Descriptions 454

13.13 New York Double Descriptions 455

13.14 Natural Phenomena and Boundaries 455

13.15 Recognition of Past Events 460

CHAPTER 14 ROLE OF THE SURVEYOR 462

14.1 Introduction 462

14.2 Function of the Surveyor 464

14.3 Opinions of Fact and Applications of Law 464

14.4 Establishment of Boundaries 466

14.5 Establishment in Louisiana 467

Private Surveys 467

14.6 Responsibility and Authority of the Surveyor 467

14.7 Basis of a Boundary Survey 468

14.8 How Much Research? 469

14.9 Ownership 470

14.10 Encroachments 470

14.11 Searching for Monuments 471

14.12 Possession Marking Original Survey Lines 472

14.13 Evidence 472

14.14 Setting Monuments 473

14.15 Plats 473

14.16 Liability 474

14.17 Conclusion 475

CHAPTER 15 THE ETHICS AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF BOUNDARY CREATION AND OF RETRACEMENTS 478

15.1 Introduction 478

15.2 The Philosophy of Boundaries 479

15.3 Applying the Principles to Creating and Retracing

Boundaries 480

15.4 Final Comments 486

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 489

INDEX 515