Rent 9780849308260 | Fundamentals of Microfabrication: The Science of Miniaturization, Second Edition

Summary Table of Contents

MEMS technology and applications have grown at a tremendous pace, while structural dimensions have grown smaller and smaller, reaching down even to the molecular level. With this movement have come new types of applications and rapid advances in the technologies and techniques needed to fabricate the increasingly miniature devices that are literally changing our world.A bestseller in its first edition, Fundamentals of Microfabrication, Second Edition reflects the many developments in methods, materials, and applications that have emerged recent... MORE

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Lithography

(77)

Introduction

(1)

Historical Note: Lithography's Origins

(1)

Photolithography Overview

(12)

Introduction

(1)

Masks

(1)

Spinning Resist and Soft Baking

(1)

Exposure and Postexposure Treatment

(1)

Development

(1)

De-scumming and Postbaking

(1)

Resists

(4)

Wafer Priming

(1)

Wafer Cleaning and Contaminants: The Clean Room

(3)

Resist Stripping

(1)

Critical Dimension, Overall Resolution, Line Width

(1)

Lithographic Sensitivity and Intrinsic Resist Sensitivity (Photochemical Quantum Efficiency)

(2)

Lithographic Sensitivity

(1)

Intrinsic Sensitivity of a Resist (Photochemical Quantum Efficiency)

(1)

Resist Profiles

(3)

Overview of Profile Types

(2)

Lift-Off Profile

(1)

Contrast and Experimental Determination of Lithographic Sensitivity

(2)

Resolution in Photolithography

(11)

Introduction

(1)

Resolution in Contact and Proximity Printing (Shadow Printing)

(1)

Projection Printing

(9)

Planarization

(1)

Photolithography Resolution Enhancement Technology

(12)

Introduction

(1)

Strategies for Improved Resolution through Improved Resist Performance

(8)

Strategies for Improved Resolution through Improved Mask Technology

(3)

Beyond Moore's Law

(4)

Introduction

(1)

Moore's Law

(2)

Kurzweil

(2)

Next-Generation Lithographies

(10)

Introduction

(1)

Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography

(1)

X-Ray Lithography

(3)

Charged-Particle-Beam Lithography

(6)

Emerging Lithography Technologies

(10)

Introduction

(1)

Scanning probe Lithography

(3)

Very Thin Resist Layers

(2)

Soft Lithography

(2)

3D Lithography Methods

(3)

Examples

(2)

Protein Patterning

(1)

Inclined LIGA Walls

(1)

PDMS-Based CDs

(1)

Problems

(1)

References

(6)

Pattern Transfer with Dry Etching Techniques

(46)

Introduction

(1)

Dry Etching: Definitions and Jargon

(1)

Plasmas or Discharges

(9)

Physics of DC Plasmas

(4)

Spatial Zones in the Glow Discharge

(1)

Paschen's Law

(1)

Physics of RF Plasmas

(3)

Physical Etching: Ion Etching or Sputtering and Ion-Beam Milling

(5)

Introduction

(1)

Sputtering or Ion Etching

(1)

Ion-Beam Etching or Ion-Beam Milling

(2)

Etching Profiles in Physical Etching

(2)

Plasma Etching (Radical Etching)

(4)

Introduction

(1)

Reactor Configurations

(1)

Reaction Mechanism

(1)

Loading Effects-Uniformity and Nonuniformity

(1)

Atmospheric Downstream Plasma Etching or Plasma Jet Etching

(2)

Ion Energy vs. Pressure Relationship in a Plasma

(1)

Physical/Chemical Etching

(7)

Introduction

(1)

Energy-Driven Anisotropy

(2)

Inhibitor-Driven Anisotropy

(1)

Dopant-Driven Anisotropy

100

(1)

Gas Compositions in Dry Etching

101

(1)

Simplifying Rules

101

(3)

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)

104

(3)

Introduction

104

(1)

New Plasma Sources

104

(2)

Common Problems Associated with DRIE

106

(1)

Vapor-Phase Etching without Plasma (XeF2)

107

(1)

Dry Etching Models-In Situ Monitoring

108

(2)

Comparing Wet and Dry Etching

110

(1)

Examples

110

(6)

Via Etching in Si

110

(1)

Single-Crystal Reactive Etching and Metallization (SCREAM)

111

(3)

Post-CMOS Processing for High-Aspect-Ratio Integrated Silicon Microstructures

114

(1)

Dry Etching of polymeric Materials

114

(1)

Combination Wet and Dry Etching

115

(1)

Problems

116

(2)

References

118

(5)

Pattern Transfer with Additive Techniques

123

(60)

Introduction

123

(2)

Silicon Growth

125

(2)

Doping of Si

127

(4)

Introduction

127

(1)

Conductivity of Semiconductors

128

(1)

Si Doping by Diffusion

128

(2)

Doping by Implantation

130

(1)

Oxidation of Silicon

131

(3)

Kinetics

131

(2)

Orientation Dependence of Oxidation Kinetics

133

(1)

Properties of Thermal SiO2

133

(1)

Physical Vapor Deposition

134

(10)

Introduction

134

(1)

Thermal Evaporation

135

(3)

Sputtering

138

(2)

Molecular Beam Epitaxy

140

(1)

Laser Sputter Deposition or Ablation Deposition

141

(2)

Ion Plating

143

(1)

Cluster Beam Technology

143

(1)

Chemical Vapor Deposition

144

(10)

Introduction

144

(1)

Reaction Mechanisms

144

(2)

Step Coverage

146

(1)

Energy Sources for CVD Processes

147

(1)

Overview of CVD Process Types

148

(4)

Epitaxy

152

(2)

CVD Equipment

154

(1)

Silk-Screening or Screen Printing

154

(2)

Introduction

154

(1)

How It Works

155

(1)

Types of Inks

155

(1)

Sol-Gel Deposition Technique

156

(1)

Doctor's Blade or Tape Casting

157

(1)

Plasma Spraying

157

(2)

Introduction

157

(1)

How It Works

157

(2)

Deposition and Arraying Methods of Organic Layers in BIOMEMS

159

(9)

Introduction

159

(1)

Deposition Methods for Organic Materials

159

(2)

Patterning of Organic Materials

161

(7)

Thin vs. Thick Film Deposition

168

(2)

Selection Criteria for Deposition Method

170

(1)

Examples

170

(4)

Spray Pyrolysis

170

(2)

Plasma-Beam Deposition

172

(2)

Proposed Scenario for Continuous Manufacture of polymer/Metal Based Biosensors-Beyond Batch

174

(1)

Problems

174

(4)

References

178

(5)

Wet Bulk Micromachining

183

(76)

Introduction

183

(1)

Historical Note

184

(1)

Silicon Crystallography

185

(8)

Introduction

185

(1)

Miller Indices

185

(1)

Crystal Structure of Silicon

186

(1)

Geometric Relationships between Some Important Planes in the Silicon Lattice

187

(6)

Silicon as Substrate

193

(2)

Silicon as a Mechanical Element in MEMS

195

(9)

Introduction

195

(1)

Stress-Strain Curve and Elasticity Constants

195

(3)

Residual Stress in Si

198

(1)

Yield, Tensile Strength, Hardness, and Creep

199

(1)

Piezoresistivity in Silicon

200

(3)

Bending of Thin Si Plates

203

(1)

Silicon as a Mechanical MEMS Material: Summary

204

(1)

Other Si Sensor Properties

204

(2)

Thermal Properties of Silicon

204

(1)

Silicon Optical Properties

205

(1)

Wet Isotropic and Anisotropic Etching

206

(22)

Introduction

206

(2)

Isotropic Etching

208

(4)

Anisotropic Etching

212

(8)

Chemical Etching Models

220

(8)

Etching with Bias and/or Illumination of the Semiconductor

228

(4)

Introduction

228

(1)

Electropolishing and Microporous Silicon

229

(3)

Etch-Stop Techniques

232

(7)

Introduction

232

(1)

Boron Etch Stop

233

(2)

Electrochemical Etch Stop

235

(2)

Photo-Assisted Electrochemical Etch Stop (for n-Type Silicon)

237

(1)

Photo-Induced Preferential Anodization (for p-Type Silicon)

238

(1)

Etch Stop at Thin Insoluble Films

239

(1)

Issues in Wet Bulk Micromachining

239

(6)

Introduction

239

(1)

Extensive Real Estate Consumption

239

(1)

Corner Compensation

240

(5)

Computer Simulation Software

245

(1)

Examples

245

(5)

Dissolved Wafer Process

245

(1)

An Electrochemical Sensor Array Measuring pH, CO2, and O2 in a Dual Lumen Catheter

246

(1)

Disposable Electrochemical Valves

247

(2)

Self Aligned Vertical Mirrors and V-Grooves for a Magnetic Micro-Optical Matrix Switch

249

(1)

Problems

250

(1)

References

251

(8)

Surface Micromachining

259

(66)

Introduction

259

(1)

Historical Note

260

(1)

Mechanical Properties of Thin Films

261

(11)

Introduction

261

(1)

Adhesion

262

(1)

Stress in Thin Films

262

(3)

Stress-Measuring Techniques

265

(7)

Strength of Thin Films

272

(1)

Surface Micromachining Processes

272

(11)

Basic Process Sequence

272

(1)

Fabrication Step Details

273

(4)

Control of Film Stress

277

(2)

Dimensional Uncertainties

279

(1)

Sealing Processes in Surface Micromachining

279

(1)

IC Compatibility

280

(3)

Poly-Si Surface Micromachining Modifications

283

(4)

Porous Poly-Si

283

(1)

Hinged Polysilicon

283

(2)

Thick Polysilicon

285

(1)

Milli-Scale Molded Polysilicon Structures

285

(2)

Surface Micromachinig Modifications Not Involving Polysilicon

287

(5)

SOI Surface Micromachining

287

(4)

Resists as Structural Elements and Molds m Surface Micromachining

291

(1)

Comparison of Bulk Micromachining with Surface Micromachining

292

(1)

Materials Case Studies

293

(13)

Introduction

293

(1)

Polysilicon Deposition and Material Structure

294

(4)

Amorphous and Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon

298

(1)

Silicon Nitride

299

(2)

CVD Silicon Dioxides

301

(2)

Metals in Surface Micromachining

303

(1)

Polycrystalline Diamond and SiC Films

303

(2)

GaAs

305

(1)

Examples

306

(7)

Analog Devices Accelerometer

306

(2)

TI Micromirrors

308

(2)

Design of SOI-Based High-Sensitivity Piezoresistive Cantilevers for Label-Less Sensing

310

(3)

Problems

313

(2)

References

315

(10)

LIGA and Micromolding

325

(54)

Introduction

325

(1)

LIGA-Background

325

(5)

History

325

(2)

Synchrotron Orbital Radiation (SOR)

327

(3)

Access to the Technology

330

(1)

LIGA and LIGA-Like Process Steps

330

(39)

X-Ray Masks

330

(5)

Choice of primary Substrate

335

(1)

Resist Requirements

335

(1)

Methods of Resist Application

336

(3)

Exposure

339

(2)

Development

341

(1)

Comparison of Master Micromold Fabrication Methods

342

(2)

Metal Deposition

344

(13)

Molding

357

(10)

Demolding

367

(1)

Sarcificial Layers

367

(1)

Alternative Materials m LIGA

368

(1)

Examples

369

(2)

Electromagnetic Micromotor

369

(1)

LIGA Spinneret Nozzles

369

(1)

LIGA Fiber-Chip Coupling

370

(1)

Problems

371

(2)

References

373

(6)

A Comparison of Miniaturization Techniques: Top-Down and Bottom-Up Manufacturing

379

(88)

Introduction

379

(1)

Absolute and Relative Tolerance in Manufacturing

380

(1)

Historical Note: Human Manufacturing

381

(4)

Section I: Top-Down Manufacturing Methods

385

(38)

Introduction

385

(1)

Chemical Microfabrication

385

(5)

Electrochemical Machining

390

(5)

Wet vs. Dry Microfabrication

395

(3)

Electrothermal Processes

398

(15)

Mechanical Processes

413

(6)

Comparison of Top-Down Micromachining Techniques

419

(4)

Section II: Bottom-Up Approaches

423

(33)

Introduction

424

(1)

Nature's Engineering Feats

425

(18)

How to Apply Nature's Tools-Merging of Biotechnology with Nanofabrication

443

(13)

Examples

456

(2)

An Electrochemical Immunosensor

456

(1)

An Optical Immunosensor

457

(1)

Problems

458

(2)

References

460

(7)

Modeling, Brains, Packaging, Sample Preparation, and Substrate Choice

467

(68)

Introduction

467

(1)

Modeling

468

(5)

Introduction

468

(1)

Finite Element Analysis

468

(2)

CAD for MEMS

470

(3)

Future of CAD for MEMS

473

(1)

Brains in MEMS

473

(5)

Introduction

473

(1)

State of the Art in Computer Development

474

(1)

Brains in Nature

474

(1)

Artificial Intelligence

475

(3)

Packaging

478

(34)

Introduction

478

(1)

Packaging in Integrated Circuits vs. in Mechanical Micromachines

478

(3)

Dicing

481

(1)

Cavity Sealing and Bonding

481

(13)

Higher Levels of packaging-L2 to L5

494

(1)

Stress Isolation and Thermal Management

494

(1)

Multichip Packaging

495

(1)

Connections between Layers (Vias)

496

(1)

Partitioning

497

(6)

Micro and Nano Assembly

503

(5)

Biocompatibility

508

(4)

Sample Preparation in Molecular Diagnostics

512

(6)

Introduction

512

(1)

Types of Samples

512

(1)

Sample Preparation Protocols for Integrated DNA Analysis Devices

513

(5)

Substrate Choice

518

(4)

Introduction

518

(1)

Quartz MEMS

519

(1)

Micromachining and Surface Microstructuring of Ceramics

519

(2)

Polyimide MEMS

521

(1)

Examples

522

(1)

Packaging of a Variable Entrance Slit for a Spectrophotometer

522

(1)

A Miniature Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Sensor-Spreeta™

523

(1)

Problems

523

(1)

References

524

(11)

Scaling, Actuators, and Power in Miniaturized Systems

535

(80)

Introduction

535

(1)

Scaling

536

(11)

Introduction

536

(1)

Micro Intuition and Nature as a Guide

536

(1)

Scaling of Length, Surface Area, and Volume

537

(1)

Scaling in Flying and Swimming

537

(1)

Scaling and Surface Tension

538

(1)

Scaling and Diffusion

539

(1)

Scaling of Minimal Analytical Sample Size

540

(1)

Scaling in Electrochemistry

540

(1)

Scaling in Optics

540

(2)

Scaling of Strength-to-Weight Ratio and Inertia

542

(1)

Fundamental Frequency and Quality Factor

543

(1)

Muscle, Flagellum, and Protein Motors

543

(2)

Trimmer's Vertical Bracket Notation

545

(2)

Actuators

547

(32)

Introduction

547

(1)

Electric Actuators

547

(27)

Magnetic Actuators

574

(5)

Fluidics

579

(8)

Introduction

579

(1)

Macroscale Laws for Fluid Flow

580

(3)

Breakdown of Flow Continuum

583

(1)

Capillary Forces

584

(3)

Thermal Actuators

587

(6)

Introduction

587

(1)

Macroscale Laws in Heat Conduction

587

(3)

Breakdown of Continuum in Heat Transfer

590

(1)

Example Thermal Actuators

591

(2)

Scaling in Analytical Separation Equipment

593

(7)

Introduction

593

(1)

Commonly Used Terms in Separation Chemistry

594

(1)

Band Broadcasting in the Column

595

(1)

Other Band Broadening Effects

596

(4)

Other Actuators

600

(1)

Power in MEMS

600

(2)

Introduction

600

(1)

MEMS Batteries and Capacitors

601

(1)

Beam Energy to the MEMS

601

(1)

Heat-Powered MEMS

602

(1)

Kinetic Energy Driven MEMS

602

(1)

Combustion Engines in MEMS

602

(1)

Examples

602

(3)

The Bead d Array Counter (BARC)

602

(1)

The Nanogen Chip

602

(1)

Field Ionization Sources

603

(2)

Problems

605

(1)

References

606

(9)

Miniaturization Applications

615

(54)

Introduction

615

(1)

Definitions and Classification Method

616

(5)

Introduction

616

(1)

Definitions

616

(2)

Classification Method

618

(3)

Decision Tree

621

(3)

Specifications

621

(1)

Scaling Characteristics of Micromechanisms

622

(1)

Checklist

622

(2)

Overall Market for Micromachines

624

(6)

Introduction

624

(1)

Why Use Miniaturization Technology?

624

(1)

From Perception to Realization

625

(1)

Overall MEMS Market Size

626

(3)

MEMS Market Characteristics

629

(1)

MEMS in the Automotive Market

630

(9)

Introduction

630

(1)

Pressure

631

(3)

Accelerometers

634

(3)

Angular Rate Sensors and Gyroscopes

637

(1)

Conclusions

638

(1)

MEMS in Medical and Biomedical Markets

639

(11)

Introduction

639

(1)

Market Character

639

(2)

In Vitro Diagnostics

641

(3)

In Vivo MEMS Applications

644

(2)

Miniaturization in Biomedical Instruments

646

(4)

Environmental Monitoring

650

(5)

Introduction

650

(1)

MEMS and Solid State Gas Sensors and Solid State Gas Sensor Arrays

651

(1)

Electrochemical Gas Sensors

652

(1)

Optochemical Gas Sensor

652

(1)

Instrumentation

652

(3)

Industrial/Automation

655

(3)

Introduction

656

(1)

ISFETs

656

(1)

Microhygrometer

657

(1)

Valves

657

(1)

IT/Peripheral

658

(3)

Introduction

658

(1)

Memory Read/Write Devices

658

(2)

Ink-Jet Cartridges

660

(1)

Other MEMS IT Applications

660

(1)

Telecommunications

661

(3)

Introduction

661

(1)

Optical Communications

662

(2)

Wireless Communications

664

(1)

Problems

664

(2)

References

666

(3)

Appendix A Metrology Techniques for MEMS

669

(2)

Appendix B Living Book

671

(2)

Appendix C Si and SiO2 Etch Rates in KOH

673

(2)

Appendix D Genetics

675

(4)

The 20 Amino Acids Found in Biological Systems

675

(2)

The Genetic Code

677

(2)

Appendix E Suggested Further Reading

679

(6)

Books on Top-Drum and Bottom-Up Miniaturization

679

(3)

Journals and Periodicals on Micromachining and Sensors

682

(1)

Series on Micromachining and Sensors

682

(1)

Market Studies on Micromachining and Sensors

683

(1)

Important Proceedings/Conferences on Micromachining and Sensors

683

(2)

Hilton Head Conferences

683

(1)

MEMS

683

(1)

Chemical Sensors

684

(1)

International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators (Transducers)

684

(1)

International Society for Optical Engineers (SPIE)

684

(1)

MicroTotalAnalysis Systems (μTAS)

684

(1)

Nanotech

684

(1)

Eurosensors

684

(1)

Commercial conference planners

684

(1)

Knowledge Foundation

684

(1)

BBC

684

(1)

CHI

684

(1)

Appendix F MEMS Companies

685

(2)

Appendix G Glossary

687

(16)

Index

703

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