Rent 9780138756840 | Human Learning | Ormrod, Jeanne E. @knetbooks.com

Summary Table of Contents

This leading text in learning theories explains principles and theories of human learning in a lucid and engaging fashion and lays out the application of those theories and principles to educational practice. Written for students with little background in psychology, the text demonstrates how different concepts relate to one another, provides numerous examples, and emphasizes meaningful learning of the material it presents. The text covers a broad range of theories, including conditioning, social cognitive theory, information processing, and social constructivism.

PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN LEARNING

Definitions and Perspectives of Learning

(8)

Importance of Learning

(1)

... MORE

Defining Learning

(1)

Nature of Principles and Theories

(2)

Advantages of Theories

(1)

Disadvantages of Theories

(1)

A Perspective on Theories and Principles

(1)

Applying Principles and Theories to Instructional Practice

(1)

Overview of the Book

(1)

Summary

(1)

PART TWO BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING

Overview of Behaviorism

(12)

Assumptions of Behaviorism

(1)

Early Theorists in the Behaviorist Tradition

(7)

Ivan Pavlov

(1)

Edward L. Thorndike

(1)

John B. Watson

(1)

Edwin R. Guthrie

(1)

Clark L. Hull

(1)

Burrhus Frederic Skinner

(2)

Contemporary Behaviorism

(1)

General Educational Implications of Behaviorism

(2)

Emphasis on Behavior

(1)

Drill and Practice

(1)

Breaking Habits

(1)

Rewards (Reinforcement) for Desirable Behavior

(1)

Summary

(1)

Classical Conditioning

(14)

Pavlov's Experiment

(1)

The Classical Conditioning Model

(1)

Classical Conditioning in Human Learning

(2)

Basic Concepts in Classical Conditioning

(3)

Extinction

(1)

Spontaneous Recovery

(1)

Stimulus Generalization

(1)

Stimulus Discrimination

(1)

Higher-Order Conditioning

(1)

Sensory Preconditioning

(1)

Contemporary Perspectives on Classical Conditioning

(1)

Changing Inappropriate Conditioned Responses

(3)

Extinguishing Undersirable Responses

(1)

Counterconditioning More Desirable Responses

(2)

Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning

(1)

Summary

(1)

Operant Conditioning

(32)

The Operant Conditioning Model

(2)

Defining Reinforcers and Reinforcement

(1)

Three Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning

(1)

What Behaviors Can Be Reinforced?

(1)

Contrasting Operant Conditioning and Classical Conditioning

(1)

Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning

(4)

Free Operant Level (Baseline)

(1)

Terminal Behavior

(1)

Extinction

(1)

Superstitious Behavior

(1)

Shaping

(1)

Chaining

(1)

The Nature of Reinforcers

(6)

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

(1)

Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, and Punishment

(2)

Different Kinds of Reinforcing Stimuli

(3)

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Reinforcement

(2)

Timing

(1)

Magnitude and Appeal

(1)

Consistency

(1)

Schedules of Reinforcement

(5)

Ratio Schedules: Reinforcing a Certain Number of Responses

(2)

Interval Schedules: Reinforcing the First Response After a Time Period

(2)

Differential Schedules: Reinforcing Rates of Responding

(1)

Stimulus Control

(3)

Stimulus Generalization

(1)

Stimulus Discrimination

(1)

Stimulus Control in the Classroom

(1)

Contemporary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning

(1)

Eliminating Undesirable Behaviors

(2)

Extinguishing Responses

(1)

Reinforcing Other Behaviors

(1)

Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors

(1)

When Reinforcement Doesn't Work

(3)

The ``Reinforcer'' Doesn't Reinforce

(1)

Reinforcement Is Inconsistent

(1)

Change Isn't Worthwhile

(1)

Shaping Proceeds Too Rapidly

(1)

Skinner on Education

(1)

Summary

(2)

Applications of Operant Conditioning

(27)

Instructional Objectives

(4)

Behavioral Objectives

(1)

The Current Perspective on Instructional Objectives

(1)

Formulating Different Levels of Objectives

(1)

Usefulness and Effectiveness of Objectives

(2)

Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted Instruction

(5)

Effectiveness of PI and CAI

(1)

Mastery Learning

(3)

Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

(1)

Effectiveness of Mastery Learning and PSI

(1)

Contingency Contracts

(2)

Guidelines for Writing Contingency Contracts

(1)

Applied Behavior Analysis

(7)

Components of Applied Behavior Analysis

(3)

Using Applied Behavior Analysis with Large Groups

(3)

Adding a Cognitive Component to ABA

(1)

Effectiveness of ABA

(1)

Criticisms of Using Reinforcement in the Classroom

(2)

Bogus Complaints

(1)

Genuine Concerns

(1)

When Operant Conditioning Techniques are Most Appropriate

(1)

Summary

(2)

Effects of Aversive Stimuli

(20)

Escape and Avoidance Learning

(4)

Escape Learning

(1)

Avoidance Learning

(2)

Punishment

(13)

Disadvantages of Punishment

(2)

Effectiveness of Punishment

101

(2)

Theoretical Perspectives on Punishment

103

(1)

Using Punishment in Classroom Settings

104

(2)

Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively

106

(5)

Learned Helplessness

111

(2)

Summary

113

(1)

PART THREE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social Learning Theory

114

(31)

The Social Learning Model

116

(1)

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

116

(1)

Environmental Factors in Social Learning: Reinforcement and Punishment

117

(5)

How the Environment Reinforces and Punishes Modeling

118

(2)

Problems with a Strict Operant Conditioning Analysis of Social Learning

120

(1)

A Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment

121

(1)

Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

122

(1)

Learning without Performance

122

(1)

Cognitive Processing during Learning

122

(1)

Expectations

122

(1)

Awareness of Response-Consequence Contingencies

123

(1)

Reciprocal Causation

123

(2)

Modeling

125

(8)

Types of Models

125

(1)

Behaviors That Can Be Learned through Modeling

125

(3)

Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur

128

(3)

Effects of Modeling on Behavior

131

(1)

Characteristics of Effective Models

132

(1)

Self-Efficacy

133

(3)

How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior

134

(1)

Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy

134

(2)

Self-Regulation

136

(5)

Aspects of Self-Regulation

136

(1)

Promoting Self-Regulation

137

(3)

Self-Regulation from a Cognitive Perspective

140

(1)

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

141

(3)

Summary

144

(1)

PART FOUR COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING

Antecedents and Assumptions of Cognitivism

145

(30)

Edward Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

146

(4)

Gestalt Psychology

150

(4)

Jean Piaget's Developmental Theory

154

(6)

Lev Vygotsky's Developmental Theory

160

(3)

Verbal Learning Research

163

(5)

Introduction to Contemporary Cognitivism

168

(4)

General Assumptions of Cognitive Theories

168

(2)

Information Processing Theory

170

(1)

Constructivism

171

(1)

Contextual Views

171

(1)

Integrating Cognitive Perspectives

172

(1)

General Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories

172

(1)

Overview of Upcoming Chapters

173

(1)

Summary

174

(1)

Basic Components of Memory

175

(28)

Basic Terminology in Memory Theory

176

(2)

Learning versus Memory

176

(1)

Storage

177

(1)

Encoding

177

(1)

Retrieval

177

(1)

A Dual-Store Model of Memory

178

(1)

Sensory Register

179

(2)

Characteristics of the Sensory Register

180

(1)

Moving Information on to Working Memory: The Role of Attention

181

(6)

Factors Influencing Attention

182

(1)

Nominal versus Effective Stimuli

183

(1)

Nature of Attention

184

(2)

Attention as a Limited Capacity

186

(1)

Working Memory

187

(5)

Characteristics of Working Memory

188

(2)

Control Processes in Working Memory

190

(2)

Long-Term Memory

192

(2)

Characteristics of Long-Term Memory

192

(1)

Control Processes in Long-Term Memory

193

(1)

Are Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Different?

194

(2)

Evidence Supporting the Distinction

194

(1)

Evidence against the Distinction

195

(1)

Functional Theories of Human Memory

196

(3)

Levels of Processing

196

(2)

Memory Activation

198

(1)

Generalizations About Memory and Their Educational Implications

199

(2)

Summary

201

(2)

Long-Term Memory I: Storage

203

(27)

Construction in Storage

204

(4)

Examples of Construction in Action

205

(3)

Long-Term Memory Storage Processes

208

(11)

Selection

210

(1)

Rehearsal

211

(1)

Meaningful Learning

212

(1)

Internal Organization

213

(2)

Elaboration

215

(2)

Visual Imagery

217

(2)

Factors Affecting Long-Term Memory Storage

219

(9)

Activities That Occur during Learning

219

(1)

Working Memory

220

(1)

Prior Knowledge

221

(4)

Prior Misconceptions

225

(1)

Expectations

226

(2)

Some Final Remarks About Long-Term Memory Storage

228

(1)

Summary

229

(1)

Long-Term Memory II:The Nature of Knowledge

230

(34)

Possible Dichotomies in Long-Term Memory

231

(2)

Episodic versus Semantic Memory

232

(1)

Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge

232

(1)

Explicit versus Implicit Memory

232

(1)

How Information is Encoded in Long-Term Memory

233

(5)

Encoding in Terms of Symbols: Words, Numbers, Etc.

233

(1)

Encoding in Terms of Appearance: Imagery

234

(1)

Encoding in Terms of Meanings: Propositions

235

(1)

Encoding in Terms of Actions: Productions

236

(2)

The Organization of Long-Term Memory

238

(6)

Long-Term Memory as a Hierarchy

239

(2)

Long-Term Memory as a Propositional Network

241

(2)

Parallel Distributed Processing

243

(1)

Concepts

244

(10)

Theories of Concept Learning

247

(7)

Schemas and Scripts

254

(3)

Mental Theories

257

(1)

Development of Expertise

258

(1)

Generalizations About the Nature of Knowledge

259

(3)

Summary

262

(2)

Long-Term Memory III: Retrieval, Forgetting, and Classroom Practice

264

(21)

How Retrieval Works

265

(3)

Retrieval Cues

268

(2)

Construction in Retrieval

270

(3)

Value of Repetition and Review

273

(3)

Development of Automaticity

274

(2)

Theories of Forgetting

276

(4)

Decay

276

(1)

Obliterative Subsumption

277

(1)

Interference

277

(1)

Failure to Retrieve

278

(1)

Repression

278

(1)

Construction Error

279

(1)

Failure to Store

279

(1)

Facilitating Storage and Retrieval in the Classroom

280

(4)

Summary

284

(1)

Applications of Cognitivism I: Promoting Effective Memory Processes

285

(33)

Expository Instruction

286

(7)

Advance Organizers

288

(1)

Ongoing Connections to Prior Knowledge

289

(2)

Coherent Organization

291

(1)

Signals

291

(1)

Visual Aids

292

(1)

Summaries

293

(1)

Teaching Concepts

293

(5)

Factors Influencing Concept Learning

294

(2)

Teaching Concepts Effectively

296

(2)

Mnemonics

298

(6)

Verbal Mediation

298

(1)

Visual Imagery

299

(3)

Superimposed Meaningful Structure

302

(1)

External Retrieval Cues

303

(1)

Why Mnemonics Work

304

(1)

Teacher Questions

304

(1)

Wait Time

305

(2)

Conceptual Change

307

(6)

Classroom Assessment Practices and Learning

313

(2)

Paper-Pencil Tests

313

(1)

Alternative Forms of Assessment

314

(1)

Teacher Expectations

315

(2)

Summary

317

(1)

PART FIVE COMPLEX LEARNING AND COGNITION

Metacognition and Study Strategies

318

(29)

Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills

320

(2)

Self-Regulated Learning

322

(2)

Effective Learning and Study Strategies

324

(10)

Meaningful Learning and Elaboration

324

(1)

Organization

325

(3)

Note Taking

328

(2)

Identifying Important Information

330

(1)

Comprehension Monitoring

330

(3)

Summarizing

333

(1)

Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills

334

(1)

Epistemological Beliefs

335

(4)

Why Students Don't Always Use Effective Strategies

339

(2)

Promoting Effective Learning and Study Strategies

341

(4)

Effectiveness of Study Skills Training Programs

341

(1)

Guidelines for Promoting Effective Strategies

342

(3)

Summary

345

(2)

Transfer and Problem Solving

347

(38)

Transfer

348

(1)

Types of Transfer

348

(2)

Theories of Transfer

350

(4)

Factors Affecting Transfer

354

(3)

Problem Solving

357

(21)

Basic Concepts in Problem Solving

358

(2)

Theories of Problem Solving

360

(2)

Cognitive Factors in Problem Solving

362

(9)

Problem-Solving Strategies

371

(6)

Meaningless versus Meaningful Problem Solving

377

(1)

Facilitating Transfer and Problem Solving in the Classroom

378

(5)

Summary

383

(2)

Applications of Cognitivism II: Learning through Interactions with Others

385

(21)

Class Discussions

386

(3)

Guidelines for Promoting Effective Discussions

387

(2)

Reciprocal Teaching

389

(3)

Effectiveness of Reciprocal Teaching

391

(1)

Cooperative Learning

392

(4)

Common Features of Cooperative Learning

393

(2)

How Heterogeneous Should Cooperative Groups Be?

395

(1)

Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Activities

395

(1)

Peer Tutoring

396

(3)

Guidelines for Facilitating Effective Tutoring

397

(2)

Apprenticeships

399

(1)

Authentic Activities

400

(2)

Effectiveness of Authentic Activities

401

(1)

Community of Learners

402

(2)

Advantages of Interactive Approaches

404

(1)

Summary

404

(2)

PART SIX MOTIVATION

Motivation and Affect

406

(26)

General Effects of Motivation

407

(1)

Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation

408

(2)

Drives and Incentives

410

(2)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

412

(3)

Self-Worth Theory

415

(1)

Individual Differences in Motivation

416

(3)

Need for Affiliation

416

(1)

Need for Approval

417

(1)

Need for Achievement

417

(2)

The Contemporary Cognitive Perspective of Motivation

419

(1)

The Role of Affect

419

(8)

Anxiety

421

(6)

Promoting Student Motivation

427

(4)

Summary

431

(1)

Cognitive Factors in Motivation

432

(41)

Goals

434

(5)

Learning Goals versus Performance Goals

435

(3)

Coordinating Multiple Goals

438

(1)

Expectancies and Values

439

(1)

Interest

440

(3)

Effects of Interest

441

(1)

Factors Promoting Interest

442

(1)

Attributions

443

(13)

Dimensions Underlying People's Attributions

443

(3)

Effects of Attributions

446

(3)

Factors Influencing the Development of Attributions

449

(4)

Explanatory Style: Mastery Orientation versus Learned Helplessness

453

(1)

Changing Attributions

454

(2)

Competence and Self-Determination

456

(6)

Competence

457

(1)

Self-Determination

457

(4)

Effects of Feedback

461

(1)

Internalized Motivation

462

(2)

Effects of Challenge and Competition

464

(3)

Challenge

464

(1)

Competition

465

(2)

Promoting Cognitions That Motivate

467

(4)

Summary

471

(2)

References

473

(55)

Author Index

528

(19)

Subject Index

547

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