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Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

by: Ghilani, Charles D.; Wolf, Paul R.

Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

by: Ghilani, Charles D.; Wolf, Paul R.

ISBN 13:
9780131481893
ISBN 10:
0131481894
Edition: 11th
Format: Hardcover w/CD
Copyright: 01/01/2008
Publisher: Prentice Hall
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Summary

For freshman and sophomore courses in surveying.This is a highly readable best-selling text that presents basic concepts and practical material in each of the areas fundamental to modern surveying (geomatics) practice. Its depth and breadth are ideal for self-study. The Eleventh Edition includes more than 400 figures and illustrations to help clarify discussions, and numerous worked example problems to illustrate computational procedures.

Preface

xxv

Introduction

(21)

Definition of Surveying

(2)

Geomatics

(1)

History of Surveying

(3)

Geodetic and Plane Surveys

(3)

Importance of Surveying

(1)

Specialized Types of Surveys

(1)

Surveying Safety

(1)

Land and Geographic Information Systems

(1)

Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies

(1)

The Surveying Profession

(1)

Professional Surveying Organizations

(1)

Surveying on the Internet

(1)

Future Challenges in Surveying

(4)

Problems

(1)

Bibliography

(2)

Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes

(1)

PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

(7)

Introduction

(1)

Units of Measurement

(2)

International System of Units (SI)

(2)

Significant Figures

(2)

Rounding Off Numbers

(1)

PART II FIELD NOTES

(43)

Field Notes

(1)

General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes

(1)

Types of Field Books

(1)

Kinds of Notes

(1)

Arrangements of Notes

(2)

Suggestions for Recording Notes

(1)

Introduction to Automatic Data Collectors

(4)

Transfer of Files from Data Collectors

(1)

Digital Data File Management

(2)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automatic Data Collectors

(4)

Problems

(1)

Bibliography

(2)

Theory of Errors in Observations

(27)

Introduction

(1)

Direct and Indirect Observations

(1)

Errors in Measurements

(1)

Mistakes

(1)

Sources of Errors in Making Observations

(1)

Types of Errors

(1)

Precision and Accuracy

(1)

Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors

(1)

Probability

(1)

Most Probable Value

(1)

Residuals

(1)

Occurrence of Random Errors

(4)

General Laws of Probability

(1)

Measures of Precision

(3)

Interpretation of Standard Deviation

(1)

The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors

(2)

Error Propagation

(5)

Error of a Sum

(1)

Error of a Series

(2)

Error in a Product

(1)

Error of the Mean

(1)

Applications

(1)

Conditional Adjustment of Observations

(1)

Weights of Observations

(1)

Least Squares Adjustment

(5)

Problems

(2)

Bibliography

(2)

Leveling--Theory, Methods, and Equipment

(1)

PART I LEVELING--THEORY AND METHODS

(12)

Introduction

(1)

Definitions

(2)

North American Vertical Datum

(1)

Curvature and Refraction

(2)

Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation

(7)

Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic Methods

(1)

Differential Leveling

(2)

Barometric Leveling

(1)

Trigonometric Leveling

(4)

PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

(43)

Categories of Levels

(1)

Telescopes

(1)

Level Vials

(2)

Tilting Levels

(1)

Automatic Levels

(1)

Digital Levels

(2)

Tripods

(1)

Hand Level

(1)

Level Rods

(2)

Testing and Adjusting Levels

(7)

Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments

(1)

Adjusting for Parallax

(1)

Testing and Adjusting Level Vials

(1)

Preliminary Adjustment of the Horizontal Cross Hair

(1)

Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight

(2)

Problems

(1)

Bibliography

100

(2)

Leveling---Field Procedures and Computations

102

(25)

Introduction

102

(1)

Carrying and Setting up a Level

102

(2)

Duties of a Rodperson

104

(1)

Differential Leveling

105

(4)

Precision

109

(2)

Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits

111

(1)

Reciprocal Leveling

112

(1)

Three-Wire Leveling

113

(1)

Profile Leveling

113

(6)

Staking and Stationing the Reference Line

113

(2)

Field Procedures for Profile Leveling

115

(2)

Drawing and Using the Profile

117

(2)

Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling

119

(1)

Use of the Hand Level

119

(1)

Sources of Error in Leveling

119

(3)

Instrumental Errors

119

(1)

Natural Errors

120

(1)

Personal Errors

121

(1)

Mistakes

122

(1)

Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes

122

(5)

Problems

123

(2)

Bibliography

125

(2)

Distance Measurement

127

(1)

PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES

127

(2)

Introduction

127

(1)

Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements

127

(1)

Pacing

128

(1)

Odometer Readings

128

(1)

Optical Rangefinders

129

(1)

Tacheometry

129

(1)

Subtense Bar

129

(1)

PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING

129

(16)

Introduction to Taping

129

(1)

Taping Equipment and Accessories

130

(1)

Care of Taping Equipment

131

(1)

Taping on Level Ground

132

(2)

Lining In

132

(1)

Applying Tension

132

(1)

Plumbing

132

(1)

Marking Tape Lengths

132

(1)

Reading the Tape

133

(1)

Recording the Distance

134

(1)

Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground

134

(2)

Slope Measurements

136

(1)

Sources of Error in Taping

137

(4)

Incorrect Length of Tape

137

(1)

Temperature Other Than Standard

138

(1)

Inconsistent Pull

139

(1)

Sag

139

(1)

Tape Not Horizontal and Tape Off Line

140

(1)

Improper Plumbing

140

(1)

Faulty Marking

141

(1)

Incorrect Reading or Interpolation

141

(1)

Summary of Effects of Taping Errors

141

(1)

Tape Problems

141

(2)

Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem

143

(2)

PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

145

(42)

Introduction

145

(1)

Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy

145

(3)

Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement

148

(2)

Electro-Optical Instruments

150

(3)

Total Station Instruments

153

(1)

EDM Instruments Without Reflectors

153

(1)

Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances

154

(2)

Reduction of Short Lines by Elevation Differences

155

(1)

Reduction of Short Lines by Zenith or Vertical Angle

156

(1)

Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement

156

(10)

Personal Errors

157

(1)

Instrumental Errors

158

(2)

Natural Errors

160

(1)

Problems

161

(3)

Bibliography

164

(2)

Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings

166

(21)

Introduction

166

(1)

Units of Angle Measurement

166

(1)

Kinds of Horizontal Angles

167

(1)

Direction of a Line

168

(1)

Azimuths

169

(1)

Bearings

170

(1)

Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings

171

(1)

Computing Azimuths

172

(2)

Computing Bearings

174

(1)

The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field

175

(2)

Magnetic Declination

177

(2)

Variations in Magnetic Declination

179

(1)

Software for Determining Magnetic Declination

179

(2)

Local Attraction

181

(1)

Typical Magnetic Declination Problems

181

(1)

Mistakes

182

(5)

Problems

183

(3)

Bibliography

186

(1)

Total Station Instruments; Angle Measurements

187

(1)

PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS

187

(11)

Introduction

187

(1)

Characteristics of Total Station Instruments

187

(3)

Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments

190

(1)

Parts of a Total Station Instrument

190

(4)

Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument

194

(3)

Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments

197

(1)

PART II ANGLE MEASUREMENTS

198

(669)

Relationship of Angles and Distances

198

(1)

Measuring Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments

199

(2)

Measuring Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method

201

(1)

Closing the Horizon

202

(2)

Measuring Deflection Angles

204

(2)

Measuring Azimuths

206

(1)

Measuring Vertical (or Zenith) Angles

206

(2)

Sights and Marks

208

(1)

Prolonging a Straight Line

209

(2)

Balancing-In

211

(1)

Random Traverse

212

(1)

Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences

213

(1)

Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories

214

(3)

Adjustment of Plate-Level Vials

216

(1)

Adjustment of Tripods

216

(1)

Adjustment of Tribrachs

216

(1)

Adjustment of Optical Plummets

217

(1)

Adjustment of Circular Level Bubbles

217

(1)

Sources of Error in Total Station Work

217

(6)

Instrumental Errors

218

(3)

Natural Errors

221

(1)

Personal Errors

222

(1)

Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Measurement

223

(1)

Mistakes

224

(3)

Problems

224

(2)

Bibliography

226

(1)

Traversing

227

(13)

Introduction

227

(2)

Methods of Measuring Traverse Angles or Directions

229

(1)

Traversing by Interior Angles

229

(1)

Traversing by Angles to the Right

229

(1)

Traversing by Deflection Angles

229

(1)

Traversing by Azimuths

230

(1)

Measurement of Traverse Lengths

230

(1)

Selection of Traverse Stations

231

(1)

Referencing Traverse Stations

231

(2)

Traverse Field Notes

233

(1)

Angle Misclosure

234

(1)

Traversing with Total Station Instruments

235

(1)

Radial Traversing

236

(1)

Sources of Error in Traversing

237

(1)

Mistakes in Traversing

238

(2)

Problems

238

(1)

Bibliography

239

(1)

Traverse Computations

240

(30)

Introduction

240

(1)

Balancing Angles

241

(2)

Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings

243

(1)

Departures and Latitudes

244

(1)

Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions

245

(1)

Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision

246

(1)

Traverse Adjustment

247

(3)

Compass (Bowditch) Rule

248

(2)

Least-Squares Method

250

(1)

Rectangular Coordinates

250

(1)

Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations

251

(4)

Balancing Angles by Adjusting Azimuths or Bearings

251

(2)

Balancing Departures and Latitudes by Adjusting Coordinates

253

(2)

Lengths and Directions of Lines from Departures and Latitudes, or Coordinates

255

(1)

Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions

256

(2)

Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys

258

(1)

Use of Open Traverses

259

(3)

State Plane Coordinate Systems

262

(1)

Traverse Computations Using Computers

263

(1)

Locating Blunders in Traverse Measurements

263

(2)

Mistakes in Traverse Computations

265

(5)

Problems

265

(4)

Bibliography

269

(1)

Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations

270

(31)

Introduction

270

(1)

Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles

271

(2)

Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line

273

(2)

Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions

275

(2)

Intersection of a Line with a Circle

277

(3)

Intersection of Two Circles

280

(2)

Three-Point Resection

282

(3)

Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation

285

(4)

Inaccessible Point Problem

289

(3)

Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection

292

(3)

Conclusions

295

(6)

Problems

295

(4)

Bibliography

299

(2)

Area

301

(22)

Introduction

301

(1)

Methods of Measuring Area

301

(1)

Area by Division into Simple Figures

302

(1)

Area by Offsets from Straight Lines

303

(2)

Regularly Spaced Offsets

303

(1)

Irregularly Spaced Offsets

304

(1)

Area by Coordinates

305

(4)

Area by Double Meridian Distance Method

309

(3)

Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries

312

(1)

Partitioning of Lands

313

(4)

Trial and Error Method

313

(2)

Use of Simple Geometric Figures

315

(1)

Coordinate Method

316

(1)

Area by Measurements from Maps

317

(3)

Area by Counting Coordinate Squares

317

(1)

Area by Scaled Lengths

318

(1)

Area by Digitizing Coordinates

318

(1)

Area by Planimeter

318

(2)

Sources of Error in Determining Areas

320

(1)

Mistakes in Determining Areas

320

(3)

Problems

320

(2)

Bibliography

322

(1)

The Global Positioning System--Introduction and Principles of Operation

323

(35)

Introduction

323

(1)

Overview of GPS

324

(2)

The GPS Signal

326

(2)

Reference Coordinate Systems for GPS

328

(9)

The Satellite Reference Coordinate System

329

(1)

The Geocentric Coordinate System

329

(2)

The Geodetic Coordinate System

331

(6)

Fundamentals of GPS Positioning

337

(2)

Code Ranging

337

(2)

Carrier Phase-Shift Measurements

339

(1)

Errors in GPS Observations

339

(8)

Clock Bias

339

(1)

Refraction

340

(2)

Other Error Sources

342

(2)

Geometry of Observed Satellites

344

(2)

Selective Availability

346

(1)

Differential GPS

347

(2)

Real-Time Kinematic GPS Methods

349

(1)

Relative Positioning

350

(2)

Single Differencing

350

(1)

Double Differencing

351

(1)

Triple Differencing

352

(1)

The GLONASS Constellation

352

(1)

The Future

353

(5)

Problems

354

(2)

Bibliography

356

(2)

The Global Positioning System--Field and Office Procedures

358

(37)

Introduction

358

(2)

Field Procedures in GPS Surveys

360

(6)

Static Relative Positioning

360

(2)

Rapid Static Relative Positioning

362

(1)

Pseudokinematic Surveys

362

(1)

Kinematic Relative Positioning

362

(2)

Real-Time Kinematic GPS Surveys

364

(2)

Planning GPS Surveys

366

(13)

Preliminary Considerations

367

(3)

Selecting the Appropriate Survey Method

370

(2)

Field Reconnaissance

372

(1)

Developing an Observation Scheme

373

(4)

Availability of Reference Stations

377

(2)

Performing Static GPS Surveys

379

(1)

Data Processing and Analysis

379

(9)

Specifications for GPS Surveys

382

(1)

Analysis of Fixed Baseline Measurements

383

(2)

Analysis of Repeat Baseline Measurements

385

(1)

Analysis of Loop Closures

385

(1)

Baseline Network Adjustment

386

(1)

The Survey Report

387

(1)

Sources of Errors in GPS Work

388

(1)

Instrumental Errors

388

(1)

Natural Errors

389

(1)

Personal Errors

389

(1)

Mistakes in GPS Work

389

(1)

Future Outlook for GPS

390

(5)

Problems

391

(1)

Bibliography

392

(3)

Adjustments by Least Squares

395

(47)

Introduction

395

(2)

Fundamental Condition of Least Squares

397

(1)

Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method

398

(4)

Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment

402

(2)

Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities

404

(2)

Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits

406

(4)

Propagation of Errors

410

(1)

Least-Squares Adjustment of GPS Baseline Vectors

411

(6)

Least-Squares Adjustment of Traditional Horizontal Plane Surveys

417

(8)

Linearizing Nonlinear Equations

417

(2)

The Distance Observation Equation

419

(2)

The Azimuth Observation Equation

421

(1)

The Angle Observation Equation

422

(3)

A Traverse Example Using Wolfpack

425

(1)

Error Ellipses

425

(6)

Adjustment Procedures

431

(2)

Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations

433

(1)

Conclusions

434

(8)

Problems

435

(6)

Bibliography

441

(1)

Mapping Surveys

442

(38)

Introduction

442

(1)

Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys

443

(1)

Map Scale

443

(2)

Control for Mapping Surveys

445

(1)

Contours

446

(3)

Characteristics of Contours

449

(1)

Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours

449

(2)

Direct Method

450

(1)

Indirect Method

450

(1)

Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems

451

(3)

Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details

454

(12)

Radiation by Total Station

454

(2)

Radiation by Stadia

456

(5)

Coordinate Squares or ``Grid'' Method

461

(1)

Offsets from a Reference Line

461

(2)

Topographic Detailing with Portable GPS Units

463

(1)

Laser-Scanning

464

(2)

Three Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation

466

(2)

Selection of Field Method

468

(1)

Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software

468

(3)

Hydrographic Surveys

471

(4)

Equipment for Making Soundings

471

(2)

Locating Soundings

473

(2)

Hydrographic Mapping

475

(1)

Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys

475

(1)

Mistakes in Mapping Surveys

476

(4)

Problems

476

(2)

Bibliography

478

(2)

Mapping

480

(27)

Introduction

480

(1)

Availability of Maps and Related Information

481

(1)

National Mapping Program

482

(1)

Accuracy Standards for Mapping

482

(2)

Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures

484

(1)

Map Design

485

(2)

Map Layout

487

(2)

Basic Map Plotting Procedures

489

(2)

Manually Plotting by Coordinates

489

(1)

Plotting Using CADD

489

(2)

Contour Interval

491

(1)

Plotting Contours

491

(1)

Lettering

492

(1)

Cartographic Map Elements

493

(3)

Drafting Materials

496

(1)

Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems

496

(6)

Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping

502

(1)

Sources of Error in Mapping

503

(1)

Mistakes in Mapping

503

(4)

Problems

503

(2)

Bibliography

505

(2)

Astronomical Observations

507

(35)

Introduction

507

(2)

Simple Methods of Determining the Meridian

509

(2)

Shadow Method

509

(1)

Equal Altitudes of the Sun

510

(1)

Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth Determination

511

(1)

Ephemerides

512

(3)

Definitions

515

(3)

Refraction and Parallax

518

(1)

Time

519

(2)

Timing Observations

521

(1)

Star Positions

522

(1)

Azimuth from Polaris Observations

523

(1)

Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle Method

524

(4)

Verification of Field Observations

528

(1)

Locating Polaris in the Telescope

529

(3)

Practical Suggestions for Polaris Observations

532

(1)

Azimuth from Solar Observations

533

(4)

Sources of Error in Astronomical Observations

537

(1)

Mistakes

538

(4)

Problems

538

(3)

Bibliography

541

(1)

Control Surveys and Geodetic Reductions

542

(54)

Introduction

542

(1)

The Ellipsoid and Geoid

543

(2)

The Conventional Terrestrial Pole

545

(2)

Geodetic Position, and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature

547

(2)

Geoid Undulation and Deviation of the Vertical

549

(2)

U.S. Reference Datums

551

(4)

North American Horizontal Datum of 1927 (NAD27)

551

(1)

North American Horizontal Datum of 1983 (NAD83)

552

(1)

Later Versions of NAD83

552

(2)

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29)

554

(1)

North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)

554

(1)

Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys

555

(3)

The National Spatial Reference System

558

(1)

Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network

559

(1)

Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network

559

(1)

Control Point Descriptions

560

(2)

Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys

562

(5)

Triangulation

563

(1)

Precise Traverse

564

(2)

Trilateration

566

(1)

Combined Networks

567

(1)

Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys

567

(5)

Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values

572

(13)

Reduction of Distance Observations Using Elevations

572

(3)

Reduction of Distance Observations Using Vertical Angles

575

(3)

Reduction of Directions and Angles

578

(3)

Leveling and Orthometric Heights

581

(4)

Geodetic Position Computations

585

(2)

Direct Geodetic Problem

585

(1)

Inverse Geodetic Problem

586

(1)

The Local Geodetic Coordinate System

587

(2)

Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations

589

(2)

Conclusions

591

(5)

Problems

591

(3)

Bibliography

594

(2)

State Plane Coordinates

596

(38)

Introduction

596

(1)

Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems

597

(3)

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

600

(1)

Transverse Mercator Projection

601

(1)

State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83

601

(2)

Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System

603

(5)

Zone Constants

603

(1)

The Direct Problem

604

(2)

The Inverse Problem

606

(2)

Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System

608

(6)

Zone Constants

608

(1)

The Direct Problem

609

(2)

The Inverse Problem

611

(3)

Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids

614

(10)

Grid Reduction of Distances

615

(4)

Grid Reduction of Azimuths and Angles

619

(5)

Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations

624

(2)

Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another

626

(1)

Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83

627

(1)

The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection

628

(1)

Other Map Projections

628

(6)

Problems

630

(3)

Bibliography

633

(1)

Boundary Surveys

634

(27)

Introduction

634

(1)

Categories of Land Surveys

635

(1)

Historical Perspectives

636

(1)

Property Description by Metes and Bounds

637

(3)

Property Description by Block and Lot System

640

(2)

Property Description by Coordinates

642

(1)

Retracement Surveys

642

(3)

Subdivision Surveys

645

(2)

Partitioning Land

647

(1)

Registration of Title

648

(1)

Adverse Possession and Easements

649

(1)

Condominium Surveys

649

(7)

Geographic and Land Information Systems

656

(1)

Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys

656

(1)

Mistakes

656

(5)

Problems

657

(2)

Bibliography

659

(2)

Surveys of the Public Lands

661

(26)

Introduction

661

(1)

Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands

662

(4)

Initial Point

666

(1)

Principal Meridian

666

(1)

Baseline

667

(1)

Standard Parallels (Correction Lines)

668

(1)

Guide Meridians

668

(1)

Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines

669

(1)

Designation of Townships

670

(1)

Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships

671

(1)

Subdivision of a Township into Sections

672

(2)

Subdivision of Sections

674

(1)

Fractional Sections

674

(1)

Notes

675

(1)

Outline of Subdivision Steps

675

(1)

Marking Corners

675

(1)

Witness Corners

675

(2)

Meander Corners

677

(1)

Lost and Obliterated Corners

677

(3)

Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys

680

(1)

Descriptions by Township Section, and Smaller Subdivision

681

(1)

BLM Land Information System

681

(1)

Sources of Error

682

(1)

Mistakes

683

(4)

Problems

683

(2)

Bibliography

685

(2)

Construction Surveys

687

(26)

Introduction

687

(1)

Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys

688

(2)

Visible Laser-Beam Instruments

688

(2)

Pulsed Laser EDMs

690

(1)

Horizontal and Vertical Control

690

(2)

Staking Out a Pipeline

692

(2)

Staking Pipeline Grades

694

(1)

Staking Out a Building

695

(4)

Staking Out Highways

699

(5)

Other Construction Surveys

704

(1)

Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments

705

(3)

Construction Surveys Using GPS Equipment

708

(1)

As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning

709

(1)

Sources of Error in Construction Surveys

710

(1)

Mistakes

710

(3)

Problems

710

(2)

Bibliography

712

(1)

Horizontal Curves

713

(41)

Introduction

713

(1)

Degree of Circular Curve

714

(2)

Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas

716

(2)

Circular Curve Stationing

718

(2)

General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles

720

(1)

Computing Deflection Angles and Chords

721

(2)

Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords

723

(2)

Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords

725

(1)

Setups on Curve

725

(1)

Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords

726

(2)

Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords

728

(1)

Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve

729

(2)

Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates

731

(5)

Circular Curve Layout by Offsets

736

(3)

Special Circular Curve Problems

739

(2)

Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point

740

(1)

Intersection of a Circular Curve and a Straight Line

740

(1)

Intersection of Two Circular Curves

741

(1)

Compound and Reverse Curves

741

(1)

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

741

(1)

Spirals

742

(5)

Spiral Geometry

742

(2)

Spiral Calculation and Layout

744

(3)

Computation of ``As-Built'' Circular Alignments

747

(3)

Sources of Error in Laying out Circular Curves

750

(1)

Mistakes

750

(4)

Problems

751

(2)

Bibliography

753

(1)

Vertical Curves

754

(19)

Introduction

754

(1)

General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve

755

(1)

Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve

755

(3)

Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation

758

(3)

Example Computations Using the English System of Units

758

(2)

Example Computations Using the Metric System

760

(1)

Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola

761

(1)

Curve Computations by Proportion

762

(1)

Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve

763

(1)

Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve

763

(3)

High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve

766

(1)

Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point

767

(1)

Sight Distance

768

(2)

Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves

770

(1)

Mistakes

770

(3)

Problems

771

(1)

Bibliography

772

(1)

Volumes

773

(20)

Introduction

773

(1)

Methods of Volume Measurement

773

(1)

The Cross-Section Method

774

(1)

Types of Cross Sections

775

(1)

Average End Area Formula

776

(2)

Determining End Areas

778

(2)

End Areas by Simple Figures

778

(1)

End Areas by Coordinates

779

(1)

Computing Slope Intercepts

780

(1)

Prismoidal Formula

781

(2)

Volume Computations

783

(1)

Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method

784

(2)

Contour-Area Method

786

(1)

Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge

787

(1)

Sources of Error in Determining Volumes

788

(1)

Mistakes

788

(5)

Problems

789

(2)

Bibliography

791

(2)

Photogrammetry

793

(46)

Introduction

793

(1)

Uses of Photogrammetry

794

(1)

Aerial Cameras

795

(2)

Types of Aerial Photographs

797

(1)

Vertical Aerial Photographs

797

(3)

Scale of a Vertical Photograph

800

(4)

Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph

804

(1)

Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph

805

(2)

Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph

807

(1)

Stereoscopic Parallax

808

(3)

Stereoscopic Viewing

811

(2)

Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax

813

(1)

Analytical Photogrammetry

814

(1)

Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments

815

(8)

Direct Optical Projection Stereoplotters

816

(2)

Mechanical Projection Stereoplotters

818

(1)

Analytical Stereoplotters

819

(2)

Softcopy Stereoplotters

821

(2)

Orthophotos

823

(1)

Ground Control for Photogrammetry

824

(1)

Flight Planning

825

(3)

Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems

828

(1)

Remote Sensing

828

(6)

Sources of Error in Photogrammetry

834

(1)

Mistakes

834

(5)

Problems

834

(3)

Bibliography

837

(2)

Introduction to Geographic Information Systems

839

(28)

Introduction

839

(3)

Land Information Systems

842

(1)

GIS Data Sources and Classifications

842

(1)

Spatial Data

842

(6)

Simple Spatial Objects

843

(1)

Vector and Raster Formats

844

(3)

Topology

847

(1)

Nonspatial Data

848

(1)

Data Format Conversions

849

(2)

Vector-to-Raster Conversion

849

(2)

Raster-to-Vector Conversion

851

(1)

Creating GIS Databases

851

(6)

Generating Digital Data from Field Surveys

852

(1)

Digitizing from Aerial Photos with Stereoplotters

853

(1)

Digitizing Existing Graphic Materials

853

(2)

Scanning

855

(1)

Keyboard Entry

856

(1)

Existing Digital Data Sets

857

(1)

Metadata

857

(1)

GIS Analytical Functions

858

(4)

Proximity Analysis

858

(1)

Boundary Operations

859

(1)

Spatial Joins

860

(1)

Logical Operations

861

(1)

Other GIS Functions

862

(1)

GIS Applications

862

(5)

Problems

863

(2)

Bibliography

865

(2)

APPENDIX A DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES

867

(15)

A.1 Introduction

867

(1)

A.2 The Dumpy Level

868

(1)

A.3 Introduction to the Transit and Theodolite

869

(3)

A.4 The Transit

872

(5)

A.4.1 Parts of a Transit

872

(1)

A.4.2 Circle Scales and Verniers

873

(2)

A.4.3 Properties of the Transit

875

(1)

A.4.4 Handling, Setting up, and Using a Transit

875

(2)

A.5 The Theodolite

877

(5)

A.5.1 Characteristics of Theodolites

878

(1)

A.5.2 Repeating Theodolites

879

(1)

A.5.3 Directional Theodolites

880

(1)

A.5.4 Handling, Setting up, and Using a Thedolite

881

(1)

APPENDIX B EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS

882

(7)

APPENDIX C TARGET HEIGHT AND LATITUDE CORRECTIONS TO OBSERVED AZIMUTHS

889

(3)

C.1 Introduction

889

(1)

C.2 Target Height Reduction

889

(1)

C.3 Correction for Target Station at Different Latitude

890

(2)

APPENDIX D USING THE WORKSHEETS ON THE COMPANION DISK

892

(6)

D.1 Introduction

892

(1)

D.2 Using the Files

893

(3)

D.3 Using the Worksheets as an Aid in Learning

896

(2)

APPENDIX E ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS

898

(5)

Index

903

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Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

9780131481893

0131481894

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Amazon no longer offers textbook rentals. We do!

Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

9780131481893

0131481894

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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