List of Symbols xix

1. Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

1.1 Historical Perspective 2

1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2

1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 4

Case Study—Liberty Ship Failures 5

1.4 Classification of Materials 6

Case Study—Carbonated Beverage Containers 11

1.5 Advanced Materials 12

1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 14

Summary 15

References 15

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 16

Learning Objectives 17

2.1 Introduction 17

Atomic Structure 17

2.2 Fundamental Concepts 17

2.3 Electrons in Atoms 19

2.4 The Periodic Table 25

Atomic Bonding in Solids 27

2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 27

2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 29

2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 36

Materials of Importance—Water (Its Volume Expansion upon Freezing) 39

2.8 Mixed Bonding 40

2.9 Molecules 41

2.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations 41

Summary 42

Equation Summary 43

List of Symbols 43

Important Terms and Concepts 44

References 44

3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 45

Learning Objectives 46

3.1 Introduction 46

Crystal Structures 46

3.2 Fundamental Concepts 46

3.3 Unit Cells 47

3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 48

3.5 Density Computations—Metals 54

3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 54

3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics 60

3.8 Silicate Ceramics 61

3.9 Carbon 65

3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 66

3.11 Crystal Systems 66

Material of Importance—Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 68

Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 69

3.12 Point Coordinates 69

3.13 Crystallographic Directions 72

3.14 Crystallographic Planes 78

3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 84

3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 85

Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 89

3.17 Single Crystals 89

3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 89

3.19 Anisotropy 89

3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 91

3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 96

Summary 98

Equation Summary 100

List of Symbols 101

Important Terms and Concepts 102

References 102

4. Polymer Structures 103

Learning Objectives 104

4.1 Introduction 104

4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 104

4.3 Polymer Molecules 107

4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 107

4.5 Molecular Weight 111

4.6 Molecular Shape 114

4.7 Molecular Structure 116

4.8 Molecular Configurations 117

4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 120

4.10 Copolymers 121

4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 122

4.12 Polymer Crystals 126

Summary 128

Equation Summary 129

List of Symbols 130

Important Terms and Concepts 130

References 130

5. Imperfections in Solids 131

Learning Objectives 132

5.1 Introduction 132

Point Defects 133

5.2 Point Defects in Metals 133

5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 134

5.4 Impurities in Solids 137

5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 142

5.6 Specification of Composition 142

Miscellaneous Imperfections 146

5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 146

5.8 Interfacial Defects 149

5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 152

5.10 Atomic Vibrations 152

Materials of Importance—Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 153

Microscopic Examination 154

5.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 154

5.12 Microscopic Techniques 155

5.13 Grain-Size Determination 159

Summary 162

Equation Summary 164

List of Symbols 165

Important Terms and Concepts 165

References 165

6. Diffusion 166

Learning Objectives 167

6.1 Introduction 167

6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 168

6.3 Fick’s First Law 169

6.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion 171

6.5 Factors that Influence Diffusion 175

6.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 180

Materials of Importance—Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 183

6.7 Other Diffusion Paths 184

6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 184

Summary 187

Equation Summary 188

List of Symbols 189

Important Terms and Concepts 189

References 189

7. Mechanical Properties 190

Learning Objectives 191

7.1 Introduction 191

7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 192

Elastic Deformation 196

7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 196

7.4 Anelasticity 199

7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 200

Mechanical Behavior—Metals 202

7.6 Tensile Properties 203

7.7 True Stress and Strain 210

7.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 213

7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations 213

Mechanical Behavior—Ceramics 214

7.10 Flexural Strength 214

7.11 Elastic Behavior 215

7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 215

Mechanical Behavior—Polymers 217

7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 217

7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 219

7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 220

Hardness and Other Mechanical Property Considerations 224

7.16 Hardness 224

7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 229

7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 230

Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 231

7.19 Variability of Material Properties 231

7.20 Design/Safety Factors 233

Summary 237

Equation Summary 239

List of Symbols 240

Important Terms and Concepts 241

References 241

8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 243

Learning Objectives 244

8.1 Introduction 244

Deformation Mechanisms For Metals 244

8.2 Historical 245

8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 245

8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 247

8.5 Slip Systems 248

8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 250

8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 253

8.8 Deformation by Twinning 255

Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 256

8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 256

8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 258

8.11 Strain Hardening 259

Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 262

8.12 Recovery 262

8.13 Recrystallization 263

8.14 Grain Growth 267

Deformation Mechanisms For Ceramic Materials 269

8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 269

8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 269

Mechanisms of Deformation and For Strengthening of Polymers 270

8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 270

8.18 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 272

Materials of Importance—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 275

8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 276

Summary 278

Equation Summary 281

List of Symbols 281

Important Terms and Concepts 281

References 282

9. Failure 283

Learning Objectives 284

9.1 Introduction 284

Fracture 285

9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 285

9.3 Ductile Fracture 285

9.4 Brittle Fracture 287

9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 289

9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 298

9.7 Fracture of Polymers 302

9.8 Fracture Toughness Testing 304

Fatigue 308

9.9 Cyclic Stresses 309

9.10 The S–N Curve 310

9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 315

9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 316

9.13 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 318

9.14 Environmental Effects 320

Creep 321

9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 321

9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 322

9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 325

9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 326

9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 327

Summary 327

Equation Summary 330

List of Symbols 331

Important Terms and Concepts 332

References 332

10. Phase Diagrams 333

Learning Objectives 334

10.1 Introduction 334

Definitions and Basic Concepts 334

10.2 Solubility Limit 335

10.3 Phases 336

10.4 Microstructure 336

10.5 Phase Equilibria 336

10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 337

Binary Phase Diagrams 338

10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 339

10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 341

10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 345

10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 348

10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 348

10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 354

Materials of Importance—Lead-Free Solders 355

10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 361

10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 364

10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 365

10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 365

10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 369

10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 370

The Iron–Carbon System 372

10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe₃C) Phase Diagram 372

10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 375

10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 382

Summary 383

Equation Summary 385

List of Symbols 386

Important Terms and Concepts 386

References 386

11. Phase Transformations 387

Learning Objectives 388

11.1 Introduction 388

Phase Transformations in Metals 388

11.2 Basic Concepts 389

11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 389

11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 400

Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron–Carbon Alloys 401

11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 401

11.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 412

11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 415

11.8 Tempered Martensite 419

11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 422

Materials of Importance—Shape-Memory Alloys 425

Precipitation Hardening 428

11.10 Heat Treatments 428

11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 430

11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 432

Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena in Polymers 433

11.13 Crystallization 433

11.14 Melting 434

11.15 The Glass Transition 434

11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 435

11.17 Factors that Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 435

Summary 438

Equation Summary 440

List of Symbols 441

Important Terms and Concepts 441

References 441

12. Electrical Properties 442

Learning Objectives 443

12.1 Introduction 443

Electrical Conduction 443

12.2 Ohm’s Law 443

12.3 Electrical Conductivity 444

12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 445

12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 445

12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 447

12.7 Electron Mobility 449

12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 450

12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 453

Materials of Importance—Aluminum Electrical Wires 453

Semiconductivity 455

12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 455

12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 458

12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 461

12.13 Factors that Affect Carrier Mobility 462

12.14 The Hall Effect 466

12.15 Semiconductor Devices 468

Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 474

12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 475

12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 475

Dielectric Behavior 476

12.18 Capacitance 476

12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 478

12.20 Types of Polarization 481

12.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 483

12.22 Dielectric Strength 484

12.23 Dielectric Materials 484

Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 484

12.24 Ferroelectricity 484

12.25 Piezoelectricity 485

Material of Importance—Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 486

Summary 487

Equation Summary 490

List of Symbols 490

Important Terms and Concepts 491

References 491

13. Types and Applications of Materials 492

Learning Objectives 493

13.1 Introduction 493

Types of Metal Alloys 493

13.2 Ferrous Alloys 493

13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 506

Materials of Importance—Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 516

Types of Ceramics 517

13.4 Glasses 518

13.5 Glass-Ceramics 518

13.6 Clay Products 520

13.7 Refractories 520

13.8 Abrasives 523

13.9 Cements 525

13.10 Carbons 526

13.11 Advanced Ceramics 528

Types of Polymers 533

13.12 Plastics 533

Materials of Importance—Phenolic Billiard Balls 536

13.13 Elastomers 536

13.14 Fibers 538

13.15 Miscellaneous Applications 539

13.16 Advanced Polymeric Materials 540

Summary 544

Important Terms and Concepts 547

References 547

14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 548

Learning Objectives 549

14.1 Introduction 549

Fabrication of Metals 549

14.2 Forming Operations 550

14.3 Casting 551

14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 553

Thermal Processing of Metals 554

14.5 Annealing Processes 554

14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels 557

Fabrication of Ceramic Materials 566

14.7 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 568

14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 573

14.9 Powder Pressing 577

14.10 Tape Casting 579

Synthesis and Fabrication of Polymers 580

14.11 Polymerization 580

14.12 Polymer Additives 583

14.13 Forming Techniques for Plastics 584

14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers 587

14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 587

Summary 588

Important Terms and Concepts 591

References 591

15. Composites 592

Learning Objectives 593

15.1 Introduction 593

Particle-Reinforced Composites 595

15.2 Large–Particle Composites 595

15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 599

Fiber-Reinforced Composites 599

15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 600

15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 601

15.6 The Fiber Phase 609

15.7 The Matrix Phase 611

15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 611

15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 617

15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 618

15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 620

15.12 Hybrid Composites 620

15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 621

Structural Composites 623

15.14 Laminar Composites 623

15.15 Sandwich Panels 625

Case Study—Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 627

15.16 Nanocomposites 628

Summary 631

Equation Summary 633

List of Symbols 634

Important Terms and Concepts 634

References 634

16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 635

Learning Objectives 636

16.1 Introduction 636

Corrosion of Metals 637

16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 637

16.3 Corrosion Rates 643

16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 645

16.5 Passivity 651

16.6 Environmental Effects 652

16.7 Forms of Corrosion 653

16.8 Corrosion Environments 660

16.9 Corrosion Prevention 661

16.10 Oxidation 663

Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 666

Degradation of Polymers 666

16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 666

16.12 Bond Rupture 668

16.13 Weathering 670

Summary 670

Equation Summary 672

List of Symbols 673

Important Terms and Concepts 674

References 674

17. Thermal Properties 675

Learning Objectives 676

17.1 Introduction 676

17.2 Heat Capacity 676

17.3 Thermal Expansion 680

Materials of Importance—Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 682

17.4 Thermal Conductivity 683

17.5 Thermal Stresses 686

Summary 688

Equation Summary 689

List of Symbols 690

Important Terms and Concepts 690

References 690

18. Magnetic Properties 691

Learning Objectives 692

18.1 Introduction 692

18.2 Basic Concepts 692

18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 696

18.4 Ferromagnetism 698

18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 699

18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 703

18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 704

18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 707

18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 708

Materials of Importance—An Iron–Silicon Alloy that is Used in Transformer Cores 709

18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 710

18.11 Magnetic Storage 713

18.12 Superconductivity 716

Summary 719

Equation Summary 721

List of Symbols 721

Important Terms and Concepts 722

References 722

19. Optical Properties 723

Learning Objectives 724

19.1 Introduction 724

Basic Concepts 724

19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 724

19.3 Light Interactions with Solids 726

19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 727

Optical Properties of Metals 728

Optical Properties of Nonmetals 729

19.5 Refraction 729

19.6 Reflection 731

19.7 Absorption 731

19.8 Transmission 735

19.9 Color 735

19.10 Opacity and Translucency

in Insulators 737

Applications of Optical Phenomena 738

19.11 Luminescence 738

19.12 Photoconductivity 738

Materials of Importance—Light-Emitting Diodes 739

19.13 Lasers 741

19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 745

Summary 747

Equation Summary 749

List of Symbols 750

Important Terms and Concepts 750

References 750

20. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 751

Learning Objectives 752

20.1 Introduction 752

Economic Considerations 752

20.2 Component Design 753

20.3 Materials 753

20.4 Manufacturing Techniques 753

Environmental and Societal C onsiderations 754

20.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 756

Materials of Importance—Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 761

Summary 763

References 763

Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 765

Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 767

B.1: Density 767

B.2: Modulus of Elasticity 770

B.3: Poisson’s Ratio 774

B.4: Strength and Ductility 775

B.5: Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 780

B.6: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 782

B.7: Thermal Conductivity 785

B.8: Specific Heat 788

B.9: Electrical Resistivity 791

B.10: Metal Alloy Compositions 794

Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 796

Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 801

Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 805

Appendix F Characteristics of Selected Elements 806

Appendix G Values of Selected Constants, Unit Abbreviations and SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes 807

Glossary 808

Index 821

Questions and Problems P-1

Chapter 1 P-1

Chapter 2 P-1

Chapter 3 P-4

Chapter 4 P-12

Chapter 5 P-15

Chapter 6 P-20

Chapter 7 P-26

Chapter 8 P-36

Chapter 9 P-41

Chapter 10 P-47

Chapter 11 P-54

Chapter 12 P-60

Chapter 13 P-66

Chapter 14 P-68

Chapter 15 P-72

Chapter 16 P-76

Chapter 17 P-79

Chapter 18 P-82

Chapter 19 P-85

Chapter 20 P-87

Answers to Selected Problems PA-1

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