Rent 9780815334804 | Essential Cell Biology | Alberts, Bruce @knetbooks.com

Summary Table of Contents Author Biography

Essential Cell Biology, Second Edition contains basic, core knowledge about how cells work. It has a proven track record in providing students with a conceptual and accessible grounding in cell biology. The text and figures have been prepared to be easy-to-follow, accurate, clear and engaging for the introductory student. Each section follows logically from the previous one, telling a story, rather than being a collection of facts. Questions integrated throughout each chapter encourage the reader to pause, think about what they have read, and attempt to apply the new knowledge in ways that test their understanding. Based on user feedback, the Second Edition now offers increased coverage of genetics and more experimental background. It is completely up-to-date.

Introduction to Cells

(39)

Unity and Diversity of Cells

(4)

... MORE

Cells Vary Enormously in Appearance and Function

(1)

Living Cells All Have a Similar Basic Chemistry

(1)

All Present-Day Cells Have Apparently Evolved from the Same Ancestor

(1)

Genes Provide the Instructions for Cellular Form, Function, and Complex Behavior

(1)

Cells Under the Microscope

(6)

The Invention of the Light Microscope Led to the Discovery of Cells

(1)

Cells, Organelles, and Even Molecules Can Be Seen Under the Microscope

(4)

The Procaryotic Cell

(5)

Procaryotes Are the Most Diverse of Cells

(1)

The World of Procaryotes Is Divided into Two Domains: Eubacteria and Archaea

(1)

The Eucaryotic Cell

(11)

The Nucleus Is the Information Store of the Cell

(1)

Mitochondria Generate Energy from Food to Power the Cell

(1)

Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight

(1)

Internal Membranes Create Intracellular Compartments with Different Functions

(3)

The Cytosol Is a Concentrated Aqueous Gel of Large and Small Molecules

(1)

The Cytoskeleton Is Responsible for Directed Cell Movements

(1)

The Cytoplasm Is Far from Static

(1)

Eucaryotic Cells May Have Originated as Predators

(3)

Model Organisms

(12)

Molecular Biologists Have Focused on E. coli

(1)

Brewer's Yeast Is a Simple Eucaryotic Cell

(1)

Arabidopsis Has Been Chosen Out of 300,000 Species as a Model Plant

(1)

The World of Animals Is Represented by a Fly, a Worm, a Mouse, and Homo sapiens

(4)

Comparing Genome Sequences Reveals Life's Common Heritage

(6)

Chemical Components of Cells

(44)

Chemical Bonds

(11)

Cells Are Made of Relatively Few Types of Atoms

(1)

The Outermost Electrons Determine How Atoms Interact

(2)

Ionic Bonds Form by the Gain and Loss of Electrons

(2)

Covalent Bonds Form by the Sharing of Electrons

(1)

Covalent Bonds Vary in Strength

(1)

There Are Different Types of Covalent Bonds

(1)

Water Is Held Together by Hydrogen Bonds

(1)

Some Polar Molecules Form Acids and Bases in Water

(1)

Molecules in Cells

(8)

A Cell Is Formed from Carbon Compounds

(1)

Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules

(1)

Sugars Are Energy Sources for Cells and Subunits of Polysaccharides

(1)

Fatty Acids Are Components of Cell Membranes

(2)

Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins

(1)

Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA

(2)

Macromolecules in Cells

(25)

Macromolecules Contain a Specific Sequence of Subunits

(3)

Noncovalent Bonds Specify the Precise Shape of a Macromolecule

(1)

Noncovalent Bonds Allow a Macromolecule to Bind Other Selected Molecules

(20)

Energy, Catalysis, and Biosynthesis

(36)

Catalysis and the Use of Energy by Cells

(22)

Biological Order Is Made Possible by the Release of Heat Energy from Cells

(3)

Photosynthetic Organisms Use Sunlight to Synthesize Organic Molecules

(1)

Cells Obtain Energy by the Oxidation of Organic Molecules

(1)

Oxidation and Reduction Involve Electron Transfers

(1)

Enzymes Lower the Barriers That Block Chemical Reactions

(2)

The Free-Energy Change for a Reaction Determines Whether It Can Occur

(1)

The Concentration of Reactants Influences the Free-Energy Change and a Reaction's Direction

(1)

The Equilibrium Constant Indicates the Strength of Molecular Interactions

(3)

For Sequential Reactions, the Changes in Free Energy Are Additive

(2)

Rapid Diffusion Allows Enzymes to Find Their Substrates

100

(1)

Vmax and KM Measure Enzyme Performance

101

(5)

Activated Carrier Molecules and Biosynthesis

106

(13)

The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction

106

(1)

ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier Molecule

107

(1)

Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together

108

(1)

NADH and NADPH Are Important Electron Carriers

109

(2)

There Are Many Other Activated Carrier Molecules in Cells

111

(1)

The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Requires an Energy Input

112

(7)

Protein Structure and Function

119

(50)

The Shape and Structure of Proteins

119

(24)

The Shape of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence

121

(3)

Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy

124

(1)

Proteins Come in a Wide Variety of Complicated Shapes

125

(1)

The α Helix and the β Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns

126

(8)

Helices Form Readily in Biological Structures

134

(1)

β Sheets Form Rigid Structures at the Core of Many Proteins

135

(1)

Proteins Have Several Levels of Organization

136

(1)

Few of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains Will Be Useful

137

(1)

Proteins Can Be Classified into Families

138

(1)

Large Protein Molecules Often Contain More Than One Polypeptide Chain

139

(1)

Proteins Can Assemble into Filaments, Sheets, or Spheres

140

(1)

Some Types of Proteins Have Elongated Fibrous Shapes

141

(1)

Extracellular Proteins Are Often Stabilized by Covalent Cross-Linkages

142

(1)

How Proteins Work

143

(7)

All Proteins Bind to Other Molecules

143

(1)

The Binding Sites of Antibodies Are Especially Versatile

144

(1)

Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts

145

(1)

Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works

146

(3)

Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins

149

(1)

How Proteins Are Controlled

150

(19)

The Catalytic Activities of Enzymes Are Often Regulated by Other Molecules

151

(1)

Allosteric Enzymes Have Two Binding Sites That Influence One Another

151

(2)

Phosphorylation Can Control Protein Activity by Triggering a Conformational Change

153

(1)

GTP-Binding Proteins Are Also Regulated by the Cyclic Gain and Loss of a Phosphate Group

154

(1)

Nucleotide Hydrolysis Allows Motor Proteins to Produce Large Movements in Cells

155

(1)

Proteins Often Form Large Complexes That Function as Protein Machines

156

(1)

Large-Scale Studies of Protein Structure and Function Are Increasing the Pace of Discovery

157

(12)

DNA and Chromosomes

169

(26)

The Structure and Function of DNA

170

(7)

A DNA Molecule Consists of Two Complementary Chains of Nucleotides

171

(5)

The Structure of DNA Provides a Mechanism for Heredity

176

(1)

The Structure of Eucaryotic Chromosomes

177

(18)

Eucaryotic DNA Is Packaged into Chromosomes

178

(1)

Chromosomes Contain Long Strings of Genes

179

(2)

Chromosomes Exist in Different States Throughout the Life of a Cell

181

(2)

Interphase Chromosomes Are Organized Within the Nucleus

183

(1)

The DNA in Chromosomes Is Highly Condensed

183

(1)

Nucleosomes Are the Basic Units of Chromatin Structure

184

(2)

Chromosomes Have Several Levels of DNA Packing

186

(1)

Interphase Chromosomes Contain Both Condensed and More Extended Forms of Chromatin

187

(2)

Changes in Nucleosome Structure Allow Access to DNA

189

(6)

DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination

195

(34)

DNA Replication

196

(13)

Base-Pairing Enables DNA Replication

196

(1)

DNA Replication

196

(1)

Base-Pairing Enables DNA Replication

196

(1)

DNA Synthesis Begins at Replication Origins

197

(4)

New DNA Synthesis Occurs at Replication Forks

201

(1)

The Replication Fork Is Asymmetrical

202

(1)

DNA Polymerase Is Self-correcting

203

(1)

Short Lengths of RNA Act as Primers for DNA Synthesis

204

(2)

Proteins at a Replication Fork Cooperate to Form a Replication Machine

206

(1)

Telomerase Replicates the Ends of Eucaryotic Chromosomes

207

(1)

DNA Replication Is Relatively Well Understood

208

(1)

DNA Repair

209

(6)

Mutations Can Have Severe Consequences for an Organism

209

(1)

A DNA Mismatch Repair System Removes Replication Errors That Escape the Replication Machine

210

(2)

DNA Is Continually Suffering Damage in Cells

212

(1)

The Stability of Genes Depends on DNA Repair

213

(1)

The High Fidelity of DNA Maintenance Allows Closely Related Species to Have Proteins with Very Similar Sequences

214

(1)

DNA Recombination

215

(14)

Homologous Recombination Results in an Exact Exchange of Genetic Information

215

(1)

Recombination Can Also Occur Between Nonhomologous DNA Sequences

216

(1)

Mobile Genetic Elements Encode the Components They Need for Movement

217

(1)

A Large Fraction of the Human Genome Is Composed of Two Families of Transposable Sequences

218

(1)

Viruses Are Fully Mobile Genetic Elements That Can Escape from Cells

219

(2)

Retroviruses Reverse the Normal Flow of Genetic Information

221

(8)

From DNA to Protein: How Cells Read the Genome

229

(38)

From DNA to RNA

230

(13)

Portions of DNA Sequence Are Transcribed into RNA

230

(1)

Transcription Produces RNA Complementary to One Strand of DNA

231

(2)

Several Types of RNA Are Produced in Cells

233

(1)

Signals in DNA Tell RNA Polymerase Where to Start and Finish

234

(2)

Eucaryotic RNAs Are Transcribed and Processed Simultaneously in the Nucleus

236

(1)

Eucaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Noncoding Sequences

237

(1)

Introns Are Removed by RNA Splicing

238

(3)

Mature Eucaryotic mRNAs Are Selectively Exported from the Nucleus

241

(1)

mRNA Molecules Are Eventually Degraded by the Cell

242

(1)

The Earliest Cells May Have Had Introns in Their Genes

242

(1)

From RNA to Protein

243

(15)

An mRNA Sequence Is Decoded in Sets of Three Nucleotides

244

(1)

tRNA Molecules Match Amino Acids to Codons in mRNA

245

(3)

Specific Enzymes Couple tRNAs to the Correct Amino Acid

248

(1)

The RNA Message Is Decoded on Ribosomes

248

(3)

The Ribosome Is a Ribozyme

251

(2)

Codons in mRNA Signal Where to Start and to Stop Protein Synthesis

253

(1)

Proteins Are Made on Polyribosomes

254

(1)

Inhibitors of Procaryotic Protein Synthesis Are Used as Antibiotics

255

(1)

Carefully Controlled Protein Breakdown Helps Regulate the Amount of Each Protein in a Cell

256

(1)

There Are Many Steps Between DNA and Protein

257

(1)

RNA and the Origins of Life

258

(9)

Life Requires Autocatalysis

259

(1)

RNA Can Both Store Information and Catalyze Chemical Reactions

259

(2)

RNA Is Thought to Predate DNA in Evolution

261

(6)

Control of Gene Expression

267

(26)

An Overview of Gene Expression

268

(3)

The Different Cell Types of a Multicellular Organism Contain the Same DNA

268

(1)

Different Cell Types Produce Different Sets of Proteins

268

(2)

A Cell Can Change the Expression of Its Genes in Response to External Signals

270

(1)

Gene Expression Can Be Regulated at Many of the Steps in the Pathway from DNA to RNA to Protein

270

(1)

How Transcriptional Switches Work

271

(9)

Transcription Is Controlled by Proteins Binding to Regulatory DNA Sequences

271

(2)

Repressors Turn Genes Off, Activators Turn Them On

273

(2)

An Activator and a Repressor Control the Iac Operon

275

(1)

Initiation of Eucaryotic Gene Transcription Is a Complex Process

275

(1)

Eucaryotic RNA Polymerase Requires General Transcription Factors

276

(2)

Eucaryotic Gene Regulatory Proteins Control Gene Expression from a Distance

278

(1)

Packing of Promoter DNA into Nucleosomes Can Affect Initiation of Transcription

279

(1)

The Molecular Mechanisms that Create Specialized Cell Types

280

(13)

Eucaryotic Genes Are Regulated by Combinations of Proteins

281

(1)

The Expression of Different Genes Can Be Coordinated by a Single Protein

281

(4)

Combinatorial Control Can Create Different Cell Types

285

(1)

Stable Patterns of Gene Expression Can Be Transmitted to Daughter Cells

286

(2)

The Formation of an Entire Organ Can Be Triggered by a Single Gene Regulatory Protein

288

(5)

How Genes and Genomes Evolve

293

(30)

Generating Genetic Variation

293

(11)

Five Main Types of Genetic Change Contribute to Evolution

295

(1)

Genome Alterations Are Caused by Failures of the Normal Mechanisms for Copying and Maintaining DNA

296

(1)

DNA Duplications Give Rise to Families of Related Genes Within a Single Cell

297

(1)

The Evolution of the Globin Gene Family Shows How DNA Duplications Contribute to the Evolution of Organisms

298

(1)

Gene Duplication and Divergence Provide a Critical Source of Genetic Novelty for Evolving Organisms

299

(1)

New Genes Can Be Generated by Repeating the Same Exon

300

(1)

Novel Genes Can Also Be Created by Exon Shuffling

300

(1)

The Evolution of Genomes Has Been Accelerated by the Movement of Transposable Elements

301

(1)

Genes Can Be Exchanged Between Organisms by Horizontal Gene Transfer

302

(2)

Reconstructing Life's Family Tree

304

(7)

Genetic Changes That Offer an Organism a Selective Advantage Are the Most Likely to Be Preserved

304

(1)

The Genome Sequences of Two Species Differ in Proportion to the Length of Time That They Have Evolved Separately

305

(1)

Humans and Chimpanzee Genomes Are Similar in Organization as Well as Detailed Sequence

306

(1)

Functionally Important Sequences Show Up as Islands of DNA Sequence Conservation

307

(1)

Genome Comparisons Suggest That ``Junk DNA'' is Dispensable

308

(1)

Sequence Conservation Allows Us to Trace Even the Most Distant Evolutionary Relationships

309

(2)

Examining the Human Genome

311

(12)

The Nucleotide Sequence of the Human Genome Shows How Our Genes Are Arranged

311

(2)

Genetic Variation Within the Human Genome Contributes to Our Individuality

313

(3)

Comparing Our DNA with That of Related Organisms Helps Us to Interpret the Human Genome

316

(1)

The Human Genome Contains Copious Information Yet to Be Deciphered

317

(6)

Manipulating Genes and Cells

323

(42)

Isolating Cells and Growing Them in Culture

324

(3)

A Uniform Population of Cells Can Be Obtained from a Tissue

325

(1)

Cells Can Be Grown in a Culture Dish

325

(1)

Maintaining Eucaryotic Cells in Culture Poses Special Challenges

326

(1)

How DNA Molecules Are Analyzed

327

(9)

Restriction Nucleases Cut DNA Molecules at Specific Sites

328

(1)

Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Fragments of Different Sizes

329

(2)

The Nucleotide Sequence of DNA Fragments Can Be Determined

331

(2)

Genome Sequences Are Searched to Identify Genes

333

(3)

Nucleic Acid Hybridization

336

(5)

DNA Hybridization Facilitates the Diagnosis of Genetic Diseases

336

(2)

Hybridization on DNA Microarrays Monitors the Expression of Thousands of Genes at Once

338

(2)

In Situ Hybridization Locates Nucleic Acid Sequences in Cells or on Chromosomes

340

(1)

DNA Cloning

341

(11)

DNA Ligase Joins DNA Fragments Together to Produce a Recombinant DNA Molecule

341

(1)

Recombinant DNA Can Be Copied Inside Bacterial Cells

341

(1)

Specialized Plasmid Vectors Are Used to Clone DNA

342

(1)

Human Genes Are Isolated by DNA Cloning

343

(3)

cDNA Libraries Represent the mRNA Produced by a Particular Tissue

346

(1)

The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies Selected DNA Sequences

347

(5)

DNA Engineering

352

(13)

Completely Novel DNA Molecules Can Be Constructed

352

(1)

Rare Cellular Proteins Can Be Made in Large Amounts Using Cloned DNA

352

(1)

Engineered Genes Can Reveal When and Where a Gene Is Expressed

353

(2)

Mutant Organisms Best Reveal the Function of a Gene

355

(1)

Animals Can Be Genetically Altered

356

(3)

Transgenic Plants Are Important for Both Cell Biology and Agriculture

359

(6)

Membrane Structure

365

(24)

The Lipid Bilayer

366

(8)

Membrane Lipids Form Bilayers in Water

367

(3)

The Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-dimensional Fluid

370

(1)

The Fluidity of a Lipid Bilayer Depends on Its Composition

371

(2)

The Lipid Bilayer Is Asymmetrical

373

(1)

Lipid Asymmetry Is Generated Inside the Cell

373

(1)

Membrane Proteins

374

(15)

Membrane Proteins Associate with the Lipid Bilayer in Various Ways

375

(1)

A Polypeptide Chain Usually Crosses the Bilayer as an α Helix

376

(1)

Membrane Proteins Can Be Solubilized in Detergents and Purified

377

(1)

The Complete Structure Is Known for a Few Membrane Proteins

378

(2)

The Plasma Membrane Is Reinforced by the Cell Cortex

380

(1)

The Cell Surface Is Coated with Carbohydrate

381

(2)

Cells Can Restrict the Movement of Membrane Proteins

383

(6)

Membrane Transport

389

(38)

Principles of Membrane Transport

389

(4)

The Ion Concentrations Inside a Cell Are Very Different from Those Outside

390

(1)

Lipid Bilayers Are Impermeable to Solutes and Ions

391

(1)

Membrane Transport Proteins Fall into Two Classes: Carriers and Channels

391

(1)

Solutes Cross Membranes by Passive or Active Transport

392

(1)

Carrier Proteins and Their Functions

393

(10)

Concentration Gradients and Electrical Forces Drive Passive Transport

393

(2)

Active Transport Moves Solutes Against Their Electrochemical Gradients

395

(1)

Animal Cells Use the Energy of ATP Hydrolysis to Pump Out Na+

396

(1)

The Na+-K+ Pump Is Driven by the Transient Addition of a Phosphate Group

397

(1)

Animal Cells Use the Na+ Gradient to Take Up Nutrients Actively

397

(2)

The Na+-K+ Pump Helps Maintain the Osmotic Balance of Animal Cells

399

(2)

Intracellular Ca2+ Concentrations Are Kept Low by Ca2+ Pumps

401

(1)

H+ Gradients Are Used to Drive Membrane Transport in Plants, Fungi, and Bacteria

402

(1)

Ion Channels and the Membrane Potential

403

(8)

Ion Channels Are Ion-Selective and Gated

403

(2)

Ion Channels Randomly Snap Between Open and Closed States

405

(2)

Different Types of Stimuli Influence the Opening and Closing of Ion Channels

407

(1)

Voltage-gated Ion Channels Respond to the Membrane Potential

407

(1)

Membrane Potential Is Governed by Membrane Permeability to Specific Ions

408

(3)

Ion Channels and Signaling in Nerve Cells

411

(16)

Action Potentials Provide for Rapid Long-Distance Communication

411

(1)

Action Potentials Are Usually Mediated by Voltage-gated Na+ Channels

412

(5)

Voltage-gated Ca2+ Channels Convert Electrical Signals into Chemical Signals at Nerve Terminals

417

(1)

Transmitter-gated Channels in Target Cells Convert Chemical Signals Back into Electrical Signals

417

(2)

Neurons Receive Both Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs

419

(1)

Transmitter-gated Ion Channels Are Major Targets for Psychoactive Drugs

419

(1)

Synaptic Connections Enable You to Think, Act, and Remember

420

(7)

How Cells Obtain Energy from Food

427

(26)

The Breakdown of Sugars and Fats

428

(16)

Food Molecules Are Broken Down in Three Stages

428

(2)

Glycolysis Is a Central ATP-producing Pathway

430

(1)

Fermentations Allow ATP to Be Produced in the Absence of Oxygen

431

(3)

Glycolysis Illustrates How Enzymes Couple Oxidation to Energy Storage

434

(1)

Sugars and Fats Are Both Degraded to Acetyl CoA in Mitochondria

435

(4)

The Citric Acid Cycle Generates NADH by Oxidizing Acetyl Groups to CO2

439

(2)

Electron Transport Drives the Synthesis of the Majority of the ATP in Most Cells

441

(3)

Storing and Utilizing Food

444

(9)

Organisms Store Food Molecules in Special Reservoirs

444

(2)

Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Collaborate in Plant Cells

446

(1)

Many Biosynthetic Pathways Begin with Glycolysis or the Citric Acid Cycle

447

(1)

Metabolism Is Organized and Regulated

448

(5)

Energy Generation in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

453

(44)

Cells Obtain Most of Their Energy by a Membrane-based Mechanism

453

(2)

Mitochondria and Oxidative Phosphorylation

455

(13)

A Mitochondrion Contains an Outer Membrane, an Inner Membrane, and Two Internal Compartments

455

(2)

High-Energy Electrons Are Generated via the Citric Acid Cycle

457

(1)

A Chemiosmotic Process Converts Oxidation Energy into ATP

458

(1)

Electrons Are Transferred Along a Chain of Proteins in the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

459

(3)

Electron Transport Generates a Proton Gradient Across the Membrane

462

(2)

The Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis

464

(2)

Coupled Transport Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Is Driven by the Electrochemical Proton Gradient

466

(1)

Proton Gradients Produce Most of the Cell's ATP

466

(2)

The Rapid Conversion of ADP to ATP in Mitochondria Maintains a High ATP/ADP Ratio in Cells

468

(1)

Electron-Transport Chains and Proton Pumping

468

(10)

Protons Are Readily Moved by the Transfer of Electrons

468

(1)

The Redox Potential Is a Measure of Electron Affinities

469

(1)

Electron Transfers Release Large Amounts of Energy

470

(2)

Metals Tightly Bound to Proteins Form Versatile Electron Carriers

472

(2)

Cytochrome Oxidase Catalyzes Oxygen Reduction

474

(1)

The Mechanism of H+ Pumping Will Soon Be Understood in Atomic Detail

475

(1)

Respiration Is Amazingly Efficient

476

(2)

Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis

478

(9)

Chloroplasts Resemble Mitochondria but Have an Extra Compartment

478

(2)

Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight and Use It to Fix Carbon

480

(1)

Excited Chlorophyll Molecules Funnel Energy into a Reaction Center

481

(1)

Light Energy Drives the Synthesis of ATP and NADPH

482

(3)

Carbon Fixation Is Catalyzed by Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase

485

(1)

Carbon Fixation in Chloroplasts Generates Sucrose and Starch

486

(1)

The Origins of Chloroplasts and Mitochondria

487

(10)

Oxidative Phosphorylation Gave Ancient Bacteria an Evolutionary Advantage

488

(1)

Photosynthetic Bacteria Made Even Fewer Demands on Their Environment

489

(1)

The Lifestyle of Methanococcus Suggests That Chemiosmotic Coupling Is an Ancient Process

490

(7)

Intracellular Compartments and Transport

497

(36)

Membrane-enclosed Organelles

498

(4)

Eucaryotic Cells Contain a Basic Set of Membrane-enclosed Organelles

498

(2)

Membrane-enclosed Organelles Evolved in Different Ways

500

(2)

Protein Sorting

502

(10)

Proteins Are Imported into Organelles by Three Mechanisms

502

(1)

Signal Sequences Direct Proteins to the Correct Compartment

503

(1)

Proteins Enter the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores

504

(2)

Proteins Unfold to Enter Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

506

(1)

Proteins Enter the Endoplasmic Reticulum While Being Synthesized

507

(2)

Soluble Proteins Are Released into the ER Lumen

509

(1)

Start and Stop Signals Determine the Arrangement of a Transmembrane Protein in the Lipid Bilayer

510

(2)

Vesicular Transport

512

(4)

Transport Vesicles Carry Soluble Proteins and Membrane Between Compartments

512

(1)

Vesicle Budding Is Driven by the Assembly of a Protein Coat

513

(2)

The Specificity of Vesicle Docking Depends on SNAREs

515

(1)

Secretory Pathways

516

(7)

Most Proteins Are Covalently Modified in the ER

516

(1)

Exit from the ER Is Controlled to Ensure Protein Quality

517

(1)

Proteins Are Further Modified and Sorted in the Golgi Apparatus

518

(1)

Secretory Proteins Are Released from the Cell by Exocytosis

519

(4)

Endocytic Pathways

523

(10)

Specialized Phagocytic Cells Ingest Large Particles

523

(2)

Fluid and Macromolecules Are Taken Up by Pinocytosis

525

(1)

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis Provides a Specific Route into Animal Cells

525

(1)

Endocytosed Macromolecules Are Sorted in Endosomes

526

(1)

Lysosomes Are the Principal Sites of Intracellular Digestion

527

(6)

Cell Communication

533

(40)

General Principles of Cell Signaling

533

(13)

Signals Can Act over Long or Short Range

534

(2)

Each Cell Responds to a Limited Set of Signals

536

(2)

Receptors Relay Signals via Intracellular Signaling Pathways

538

(2)

Nitric Oxide Crosses the Plasma Membrane and Activates Intracellular Enzymes Directly

540

(1)

Some Hormones Cross the Plasma Membrane and Bind to Intracellular Receptors

541

(1)

Cell-Surface Receptors Fall into Three Main Classes

542

(2)

Ion-channel--linked Receptors Convert Chemical Signals into Electrical Ones

544

(1)

Many Intracellular Signaling Proteins Act as Molecular Switches

545

(1)

G-protein--linked Receptors

546

(11)

Stimulation of G-protein--linked Receptors Activates G-Protein Subunits

546

(2)

Some G Proteins Regulate Ion Channels

548

(1)

Some G Proteins Activate Membrane-bound Enzymes

549

(1)

The Cyclic AMP Pathway Can Activate Enzymes and Turn On Genes

550

(2)

The Inositol Phospholipid Pathway Triggers a Rise in Intracellular Ca2+

552

(2)

A Ca2+ Signal Triggers Many Biological Processes

554

(1)

Intracellular Signaling Cascades Can Achieve Astonishing Speed, Sensitivity, and Adaptability: A Look at Photoreceptors in the Eye

555

(2)

Enzyme-linked Receptors

557

(16)

Activated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Assemble a Complex of Intracellular Signaling Proteins

557

(2)

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Activate the GTP-binding Protein Ras

559

(1)

Some Enzyme-linked Receptors Activate a Fast Track to the Nucleus

560

(5)

Protein Kinase Networks Integrate Information to Control Complex Cell Behaviors

565

(1)

Multicellularity and Cell Communication Evolved Independently in Plants and Animals

566

(7)

Cytoskeleton

573

(38)

Intermediate Filaments

574

(5)

Intermediate Filaments Are Strong and Ropelike

575

(1)

Intermediate Filaments Strengthen Cells Against Mechanical Stress

576

(2)

The Nuclear Envelope Is Supported by a Meshwork of Intermediate Filaments

578

(1)

Microtubules

579

(13)

Microtubules Are Hollow Tubes with Structurally Distinct Ends

579

(1)

The Centrosome Is the Major Microtubule-organizing Center in Animal Cells

580

(1)

Growing Microtubules Show Dynamic Instability

581

(1)

Microtubules Are Maintained by a Balance of Assembly and Disassembly

582

(1)

Microtubules Organize the Interior of the Cell

583

(1)

Motor Proteins Drive Intracellular Transport

584

(1)

Organelles Move Along Microtubules

585

(5)

Cilia and Flagella Contain Stable Microtubules Moved by Dynein

590

(2)

Actin Filaments

592

(8)

Actin Filaments Are Thin and Flexible

593

(1)

Actin and Tubulin Polymerize by Similar Mechanisms

593

(1)

Many Proteins Bind to Actin and Modify Its Properties

594

(1)

An Actin-rich Cortex Underlies the Plasma Membrane of Most Eucaryotic Cells

594

(1)

Cell Crawling Depends on Actin

595

(3)

Actin Associates with Myosin to Form Contractile Structures

598

(1)

Extracellular Signals Control the Arrangement of Actin Filaments

599

(1)

Muscle Contraction

600

(11)

Muscle Contraction Depends on Bundles of Actin and Myosin

600

(1)

During Muscle Contraction Actin Filaments Slide Against Myosin Filaments

601

(2)

Muscle Contraction Is Triggered by a Sudden Rise in Ca2+

603

(2)

Muscle Cells Perform Highly Specialized Functions in the Body

605

(6)

Cell-Cycle Control and Cell Death

611

(26)

Overview of the Cell Cycle

612

(3)

The Eucaryotic Cell Cycle Is Divided into Four Phases

613

(1)

A Central Control System Triggers the Major Processes of the Cell Cycle

614

(1)

The Cell-Cycle Control System

615

(10)

The Cell-Cycle Control System Depends on Cyclically Activated Protein Kinases

616

(1)

Cyclin-dependent Protein Kinases Are Regulated by the Accumulation and Destruction of Cyclins

617

(1)

The Activity of Cdks Is Also Regulated by Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation

617

(3)

Different Cyclin-Cdk Complexes Trigger Different Steps in the Cell Cycle

620

(1)

S-Cdk Initiates DNA Replication and Helps Block Rereplication

621

(1)

Cdks Are Inactive Through Most of G1

622

(1)

The Cell-Cycle Control System Can Arrest the Cycle at Specific Checkpoints

622

(2)

Cells Can Dismantle Their Control System and Withdraw from the Cell Cycle

624

(1)

Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)

625

(3)

Apoptosis Is Mediated by an Intracellular Proteolytic Cascade

626

(1)

The Death Program Is Regulated by the Bcl-2 Family of Intracellular Proteins

627

(1)

Extracellular Control of Cell Numbers and Cell Size

628

(9)

Animal Cells Require Extracellular Signals to Divide, Grow, and Survive

629

(1)

Mitogens Stimulate Cell Division

629

(2)

Extracellular Growth Factors Stimulate Cells to Grow

631

(1)

Animal Cells Require Survival Factors to Avoid Apoptosis

631

(1)

Some Extracellular Signal Proteins Inhibit Cell Growth, Division, or Survival

632

(5)

Cell Division

637

(22)

An Overview of M Phase

638

(3)

In Preparation for M Phase, DNA-binding Proteins Configure Replicated Chromosomes for Segregation

638

(1)

The Cytoskeleton Carries Out Both Mitosis and Cytokinesis

639

(1)

Centrosomes Duplicate To Help Form the Two Poles of the Mitotic Spindle

640

(1)

M Phase Is Conventionally Divided into Six Stages

640

(1)

Mitosis

641

(11)

Microtubule Instability Facilitates the Formation of the Mitotic Spindle

641

(3)

The Mitotic Spindle Starts to Assemble in Prophase

644

(1)

Chromosomes Attach to the Mitotic Spindle at Prometaphase

645

(3)

Chromosomes Line Up at the Spindle Equator at Metaphase

648

(1)

Daughter Chromosomes Segregate at Anaphase

649

(2)

The Nuclear Envelope Re-forms at Telophase

651

(1)

Some Organelles Fragment at Mitosis

651

(1)

Cytokinesis

652

(7)

The Mitotic Spindle Determines the Plane of Cytoplasmic Cleavage

652

(1)

The Contractile Ring of Animal Cells Is Made of Actin and Myosin

653

(1)

Cytokinesis in Plant Cells Involves New Cell-Wall Formation

654

(1)

Gametes Are Formed by a Specialized Kind of Cell Division

655

(4)

Genetics, Meiosis, and the Molecular Basis of Heredity

659

(38)

The Benefits of Sex

660

(3)

Sexual Reproduction Involves Both Diploid and Haploid Cells

661

(1)

Sexual Reproduction Gives Organisms a Competitive Advantage

662

(1)

Meiosis

663

(9)

Haploid Cells Are Produced From Diploid Cells Through Meiosis

664

(1)

Meiosis Involves a Special Process of Chromosome Pairing

664

(1)

Extensive Recombination Occurs Between Maternal and Paternal Chromosomes

665

(2)

Chromosome Pairing and Recombination Ensure the Proper Segregation of Homologs

667

(1)

The Second Meiotic Division Produces Haploid Daughter Cells

667

(1)

The Haploid Cells Contain Extensively Reassorted Genetic Information

668

(2)

Meiosis Is Not Flawless

670

(1)

Fertilization Reconstitutes a Complete Genome

671

(1)

Mendel and the Laws of Inheritance

672

(14)

Mendel Chose to Study Traits That Are Inherited in a Discrete Fashion

673

(1)

Mendel Could Disprove the Alternative Theories of Inheritance

674

(1)

Mendel's Experiments Were the First to Reveal the Discrete Nature of Heredity

674

(1)

Each Gamete Carries a Single Allele for Each Character

675

(1)

Mendel's Law of Segregation Applies to All Sexually Reproducing Organisms

676

(1)

Alleles for Different Traits Segregate Independently

677

(1)

The Behavior of Chromosomes During Meiosis Underlies Mendel's Laws of Inheritance

678

(2)

The Frequency of Recombination Can Be Used to Order Genes on Chromosomes

680

(1)

The Phenotype of the Heterozygote Reveals Whether an Allele is Dominant or Recessive

681

(3)

Mutant Alleles Sometimes Confer a Selective Advantage

684

(2)

Genetics as an Experimental Tool

686

(11)

The Classical Approach Begins with Random Mutagenesis

686

(1)

Genetic Screens Identify Mutants Deficient in Cellular Processes

687

(1)

A Complementation Test Reveals Whether Two Mutations Are in the Same Gene

688

(1)

Human Genes Are Inherited in Haplotype Blocks, Which Can Aid in the Search for Mutations That Cause Disease

689

(2)

Complex Traits Are Influenced by Multiple Genes

691

(1)

Is Our Fate Encoded in Our DNA?

692

(5)

Tissues and Cancer

697

(1)

Extracellular Matrix and Connective Tissues

698

(1)

Plant Cells Have Tough External Walls

698

(4)

Cellulose Fibers Give the Plant Cell Wall Its Tensile Strength

702

(1)

Animal Connective Tissues Consist Largely of Extracellular Matrix

703

(1)

Collagen Provides Tensile Strength in Animal Connective Tissues

704

(1)

Cells Organize the Collagen That They Secrete

705

(1)

Integrins Couple the Matrix Outside a Cell to the Cytoskeleton Inside It

706

(1)

Gels of Polysaccharide and Protein Fill Spaces and Resist Compression

706

(3)

Epithelial Sheets and Cell-Cell Junctions

709

(1)

Epithelial Sheets Are Polarized and Rest on a Basal Lamina

709

(2)

Tight Junctions Make an Epithelium Leak-proof and Separate Its Apical and Basal Surfaces

711

(1)

Cytoskeleton-linked Junctions Bind Epithelial Cells Robustly to One Another and to the Basal Lamina

712

(3)

Gap Junctions Allow Ions and Small Molecules to Pass from Cell to Cell

715

(2)

Tissue Maintenance and Renewal

717

(1)

Tissues Are Organized Mixtures of Many Cell Types

718

(2)

Different Tissues Are Renewed at Different Rates

720

(1)

Stem Cells Generate a Continuous Supply of Terminally Differentiated Cells

721

(1)

Stem Cells Can Be Used to Repair Damaged Tissues

722

(3)

Nuclear Transplantation Provides a Way to Generate Personalized ES Cells: the Strategy of Therapeutic Cloning

725

(1)

Cancer

726

(1)

Cancer Cells Proliferate, Invade, and Metastasize

726

(1)

Epidemiology Identifies Preventable Causes of Cancer

727

(1)

Cancers Develop by an Accumulation of Mutations

728

(1)

Cancers Evolve Properties That Give Them a Competitive Advantage

729

(2)

Many Diverse Types of Genes Are Critical for Cancer

731

(1)

Colorectal Cancer Illustrates How Loss of a Gene Can Lead to Growth of a Tumor

732

(4)

An Understanding of Cancer Cell Biology Opens the Way to New Treatments

736

Bruce Alberts received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and is President of the National Academy of Sciences and Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics at the University of California, San Francisco Dennis Bray received his Ph.D. from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and is currently a Medical Research Council Fellow in the Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge Karen Hopkin received her Ph.D. in biochemistry from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the Bronx and is a science writer in Cambridge, Massachusetts Alexander Johnson received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and is a Professor of Microbiology and Immunology and Co-Director of the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program at the University of California, San Francisco. Julian Lewis received his D.Phil. from the University of Oxford and is a Principal Scientist at the London Research Institute of Cancer Research UK Martin Raff received his M.D. from McGill University and is at the Medical Research Council Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology and Cell Biology Unit and in the Biology Department at University College London Keith Roberts received his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and is Associate Research Director at the John Innes Centre, Norwich Peter Walter received his Ph.D. from The Rockefeller University in New York and is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics at the University of California, San Francisco, and an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute

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