1.1 Overview and History of Compilation

1.2 What Compilers Do

    1.2.1 Distinguishing Compilers by the Machine Code Generated

    1.2.2 Target Code Formats

1.3 Interpreters

1.4 Syntax and Semantics of Programming Languages

    1.4.1 Static Semantics

    1.4.2 Run-time Semantics

1.5 Organization of a Compiler

    1.5.1 The Scanner

    1.5.2 The Parser

    1.5.3 The Type Checker (Semantic Analysis)

    1.5.4 The Optimizer

    1.5.5 The Code Generator

    1.5.6 Compiler Writing Tools

1.6 Compiler Design and Programming Language Design

1.7 Architectural Influences of Computer Design

1.8 Compiler Variants

    1.8.1 Debugging (Development) Compilers

    1.8.2 Optimizing Compilers

    1.8.3 Retargetable Compilers

1.9 Program Development Environment

2.1 An Informal Definition of the ac Language

2.2 Formal Definition of ac

    2.2.1 Syntax Specification

    2.2.2 Token Specification

2.3 Phases of a Simple Compiler

2.4 Scanning

2.5 Parsing

    2.5.1 Predicting a Parsing Procedure

    2.5.2 Implementing the Production

2.6 Abstract Syntax Trees

2.7 Semantic Analysis

    2.7.1 Symbol Tables

    2.7.2 Type Checking

2.8 Code Generation

3.1 Overview of a Scanner

3.2 Regular Expressions

3.3 Examples

3.4 Finite Automata and Scanners

    3.4.1 Deterministic Finite Automata

3.5 The Lex Scanner Generator

    3.5.1 Defining Tokens in Lex

    3.5.2 The Character Class

    3.5.3 Using Regular Expressions to Define Tokens

    3.5.4 Character Processing Using Lex

3.6 Other Scanner Generators

3.7 Practical Considerations of Building Scanners

    3.7.1 Processing Identifiers and Literals

    3.7.2 Using Compiler Directives and Listing Source Lines

    3.7.3 Terminating the Scanner

    3.7.4 Multicharacter Lookahead

    3.7.5 Performance Considerations

    3.7.6 Lexical Error Recovery

3.8 Regular Expressions and Finite Automata

    3.8.1 Transforming a Regular Expression into an NFA

    3.8.2 Creating the DFA

    3.8.3 Optimizing Finite Automata

3.9 Summary

4.1 Context-Free Grammars: Concepts and Notation

    4.1.1 Leftmost Derivations

    4.1.2 Rightmost Derivations

    4.1.3 Parse Trees

    4.1.4 Other Types of Grammars

4.2 Properties of CFGs

    4.2.1 Reduced Grammars

    4.2.2 Ambiguity

    4.2.3 Faulty Language Definition

4.3 Transforming Extended Grammars

4.4 Parsers and Recognizers

4.5 Grammar Analysis Algorithms

    4.5.1 Grammar Representation

    4.5.2 Deriving the Empty String

    4.5.3 First Sets

    4.5.4 Follow Sets

5.1 Overview

5.2 LL(k) Grammars

5.3 Recursive-Descent LL(1) parsers

5.4 Table-Driven LL(1) Parsers

5.5 Obtaining LL(1) Grammars

    5.5.1 Common Prefixes

    5.5.2 Left-Recursion

5.6 A Non-LL(1) Language

5.7 Properties of LL(1) Parsers

5.8 Parse-Table Representation

    5.8.1 Compaction

    5.8.2 Compression

5.9 Syntactic Error Recovery and Repair

    5.9.1 Error Recover

    5.9.2 Error Repair

    5.9.3 Error Detection in LL(1) Parsers

    5.9.4 Error Recovery in LL(1) Parsers

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Shift-Reduce Parsers

    6.2.1 LR Parsers and Rightmost Derivations

    6.2.2 LR Parsing as Knitting

    6.2.3 LR Parsing Engine

    6.2.4 The LR Parse Table

    6.2.5 LR(k) Parsing

6.3 LR(0) Table Construction

6.4 Conflict Diagnosis

    6.4.1 Ambiguous Grammars

    6.4.2 Grammars that are not LR(k)

6.5 Conflict Resolution for LR(0) Tables

    6.5.1 SLR(k) Table Construction

    6.5.2 LALR(k) Table Construction

6.6 LR(k) Table Construction

7.1 Overview

    7.1.1 Semantic Actions and Values

    7.1.2 Synthesized and Inherited Attributes

7.2 Bottom-Up Syntax-Directed Translation

    7.2.1 Example

    7.2.2 Rule Cloning

    7.2.3 Forcing Semantic Actions

    7.2.4 Aggressive Grammar Restructuring

7.3 Top-Down Syntax-Directed Translation

7.4 Abstract Syntax Trees

    7.4.1 Concrete and Abstract Trees

    7.4.2 An Efficient AST Data Structure

    7.4.3 Infrastructure for Creating ASTs

7.5 AST Design and Construction

    7.5.1 Design

    7.5.2 Construction

7.6 AST Structures for Left and Right Values

7.7 Design Patterns for ASTs

    7.7.1 Node Class Hierarchy

    7.7.2 Visitor Pattern

    7.7.3 Reflective Visitor Pattern

8.1 Constructing a Symbol Table

    8.1.1 Static Scoping

    8.1.2 A Symbol Table Interface

8.2 Block-Structured Languages and Scope Management

    8.2.1 Handling Scopes

    8.2.2 One Symbol Table or Many?

8.3 Basic Implementation Techniques

    8.3.1 Entering and Finding Names

    8.3.2 The Name Space

    8.3.3 An Efficient Symbol Table Implementation

8.4 Advanced Features

    8.4.1 Records and Typenames

    8.4.2 Overloading and Type Hierarchies 
    8.4.3 Implicit Declarations

8.4.4 Export and Import Directives

    8.4.5 Altered Search Rules

8.5 Declaration Processing Fundamentals

    8.5.1 Attributes in the Symbol Table

    8.5.2 Type Descriptor Structures

    8.5.3 Type Checking Using an Abstract Syntax Tree

8.6 Semantic Processing of Simple Declarations

    8.6.1 Simple Variable Declarations

    8.6.2 Handling Type Names

    8.6.3 Name References

    8.6.4 Type Declarations and References

8.6.5 Variable Declarations Revisited

8.6.6 Enumeration Types

8.7 Semantic Processing for Simple Names and Expressions: An Introduction to Type Checking

    8.7.1 Handling Simple Identifiers and and Literal Constants

    8.7.2 Processing Expressions

8.8 Type Declarations

8.9 Static and Dynamic Allocation

    8.9.1 Initialization of Variables

    8.9.2 Constant Declarations

8.10 Classes and Structures

    8.10.1 Variant Records and Unions

8.11 Arrays

    8.11.1 Static One-Dimensional Arrays

    8.11.2 Multidimensional Arrays

8.12 Implementing Other Types

8.13 Key Idea Summary

9.1 Semantic Analysis for Control Structures

9.1.1 If Statements

9.1.2 While, Do and Repeat Loops

9.1.3 For Loops

9.1.4 Break, Continue, Return and Goto Statements

9.1.5 Switch and Case Statements

9.1.6 Exception Handling

9.2 Semantic Analysis of Calls

10.1 Overview

    10.1.1 Examples

    10.1.2 The Middle End

10.2 Java Virtual Machine

    10.2.1 Introduction and Design Principles

    10.2.2 Contents of a Class File

    10.2.3 JVM Instructions

10.3 Static Single Assignment Form

    10.3.1 Renaming and --functions

10.4 GCC ILs

11.1 Visitors for Code Generation

11.2 Class and Method Declarations

    11.2.1 Class Declarations

    11.2.2 Method Declarations

11.3 The MethodBodyVisitor

    11.3.1 Constants

    11.3.2 References to Local Storage

    11.3.3 Static References

    11.3.4 Expressions

    11.3.5 Assignment

    11.3.6 Method Calls

    11.3.7 Field References

    11.3.8 Conditional Execution

    11.3.9 Loops

11.4 The LHSVisitor

    11.4.1 Local References

    11.4.2 Static References

    11.4.3 Field References

12.1 Static Allocation

12.2 Stack Allocation

    12.2.1 Accessing Frames at Run-Time

    12.2.2 Handling Classes and Objects

    12.2.3 Handling Multiple Scopes

    12.2.4 Block-Level Allocation

    12.2.5 More About Frames

12.3 Heap Management

    12.3.1 Allocation Mechanisms

    12.3.2 Deallocation Mechanisms

    12.3.3 Automatic Garbage Collection

13.1 Translating Bytecodes

    13.1.1 Allocating memory addresses

    13.1.2 Allocating Arrays and Objects

    13.1.3 Method Calls

    13.1.4 Example

13.2 Translating Expression Trees

13.3 Register Allocation and Temporary Management

    13.3.1 On the Fly Register Allocation

    13.3.2 Register Allocation Using Graph Coloring

    13.3.3 Priority Based Register Allocation

    13.3.4 Interprocedural Register Allocation

13.4 Code Scheduling

    13.4.1 Improving Code Scheduling

    13.4.2 Global and Dynamic Code Scheduling

13.5 Automatic Instruction Selection

    13.5.1 Instruction Selection Using BURS

    13.5.2 Instruction Selection Using Twig

    13.5.3 Other Approaches

13.6 Peephole Optimization

    13.6.1 Levels of Peephole Optimization

    13.6.2 Automatic Generation of Peephole Optimizers

14.1 Introduction

    14.1.1 Why Optimize?

    14.1.2 Organization

14.2 Data Flow Analysis

    14.2.1 Introduction and Examples

    14.2.2 Formal Specification

    14.2.3 Evaluation WARNING this subsection is incomplete

    14.2.4 Application of Data Flow Frameworks

14.3 Advanced Optimizations

    14.3.1 SSA Form

    14.3.2 SSA-based Transformations

    14.3.3 Loop Transformations

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