Dr. Robin Kowalski is a professor of psychology at Clemson University. She has received a host of awards including SEPA Professional Paper Award, Association of Women in Psychology (AWP)/Division 35 Research Award, SEPA/CEPO Research Award, and the Phi Beta Kappa Award. Dr. Kowalski is a a member of several organizations including the Southeastern Psychology Association, Society for Personality and Social Psychology, American Psychological Association, and the International Society for Self and Identity. Her research interests include Cyber Bullying, Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors, especially teasing and complaining, Health Psychology, and Courage.

Lisa Cravens-Brown is a triple alumna of The Ohio State University, having earned her B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. in child clinical psychology. After her internship at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, she returned to Columbus to work fulltime as a therapist for sex offending youth at a local community mental health center. Several years ago, she became re-involved with the University, first as a contract instructor, then as full-time teaching faculty in the Department of Psychology, where she holds a senior lecturer position. In addition to teaching several large undergraduate classes each quarter, Lisa gives multiple lectures and talks around campus and has recently taken on the role of faculty adviser to a new student sexuality discussion group.

CHAPTER 1

PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR 1

BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY 1

Boundary with Biology 1 Boundary with Culture 2

From Philosophy to Psychology 2

PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY 4

Psychodynamic Perspective 4

Behaviorist Perspective 5

Cognitive Perspective 6

Evolutionary Perspective 7

Commentary: Making Sense of Psychological Perspectives 8

CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 19

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 19

Theoretical Framework 20

Standardized Procedures 20

Generalizability from a Sample 20

Objective Measurement 21

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 22

Focus on Methodology: What to do with Descriptive Research 22

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 23

Logic of Experimentation 23

Steps in Conducting an Experiment 23

Limitations of Experimental Research 25

Focus on Methodology: Testing the Hypothesis—Inferential Statistics 25

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 26

HOW TO EVALUATE A STUDY CRITICALLY 27

ONE STEP FURTHER: ETHICAL QUESTIONS COME IN SHADES OF GRAY 27

Deception in Psychological Research 28

Ethics and Animal Research 28

CHAPTER 3

BIOLOGICAL BASES OF MENTAL LIFE AND BEHAVIOR 41

NEURONS: BASIC UNITS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 41

Anatomy of a Neuron 42

Firing of a Neuron 42

Transmission of Information between Cells 44

Peripheral Nervous System 45

Somatic Nervous System 47

Autonomic Nervous System 47

STUDYING THE BRAIN 47

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 48

Spinal Cord 48

Hindbrain 48

Midbrain 49

Subcortical Forebrain 49

Cerebral Cortex 51

GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 54

Influence of Genetics on Psychological Functioning 54

Behavioral Genetics 54 Evolution 55

Evolution of the Central Nervous System 56

THE FUTURE: GENETIC ENGINEERING 57

CHAPTER 4

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 72

BASIC PRINCIPLES 72

SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT 73

Transduction 73

Absolute Thresholds 73

Difference Thresholds 74

Sensory Adaptation 74

VISION 75

Nature of Light 75

Eye 75

Neural Pathways 78

Perceiving in Color 80

HEARING 81

Nature of Sound 82

Ear 82

Neural Pathways 85

OTHER SENSES 85

Smell 85

Taste 87

Skin Senses 87

Proprioceptive Senses 89

PERCEPTION 89

Organizing Sensory Experience 90

Interpreting Sensory Experience 93

CHAPTER 5

LEARNING 111

INTRODUCTION 111

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 111

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 112

Extinction 112

Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning 112

What Do Organisms Learn in Classical

Conditioning? 114

OPERANT CONDITIONING 114

Reinforcement 114

Punishment 115

Extinction 117

Operant Conditioning of Complex

Behaviors 117

ONE STEP FURTHER: WHY ARE REINFORCERS REINFORCING? 120

Reinforcers as Drive Reducers 120

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 120

Role of Feelings 120

COGNITIVE–SOCIAL THEORY 121

Learning and Cognition 121

Social Learning 122

CHAPTER 6

MEMORY 137

MEMORY AND INFORMATION PROCESSING 137

Mental Representations 137

Information Processing: An Evolving Model 138

WORKING MEMORY 140

Processing Information in Working Memory: The Central Executive 140

Visual and Verbal Storage 140

Relation between Working Memory and Long-Term Memory 141

VARIETIES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY 141

Declarative and Procedural Memory 142

Explicit and Implicit Memory 142

Everyday Memory 143

ENCODING AND ORGANIZATION OF LONG-TERM MEMORY 144

Encoding 144

Mnemonic Devices 145

Networks of Association 146

Schemas 147

REMEMBERING, MISREMEMBERING, AND FORGETTING 148

How Long is Long-Term Memory? 148

How Accurate is Long-Term Memory? 149

Why Do People Forget? 149

CHAPTER 7

THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE 160

UNITS OF THOUGHT 160

Manipulating Mental Representations 160

Concepts and Categories 161

REASONING, PROBLEM SOLVING, AND DECISION MAKING 163

Reasoning 163

Problem Solving 164

Decision Making 166

IMPLICIT AND EVERYDAY THINKING 167

How Rational Are We? 167

Implicit Cognition 168

Emotion, Motivation, and Decision Making 168

Connectionism 169

LANGUAGE 170

Language and Thought 170

Transforming Sounds and Symbols into Meaning 171

Use of Language in Everyday Life 172

CHAPTER 8

INTELLIGENCE 184

DEFINING INTELLIGENCE 184

Intelligence Is Multifaceted, Functional, and Culturally Defined 184

INTELLIGENCE TESTING 185

Binet’s Scale 185

Intelligence Testing Crosses the Atlantic 186

Validity and Reliability of IQ Tests 187

APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENCE 189

Psychometric Approach 189

Information-Processing Approach 190

Theory of Multiple Intelligences 191

HEREDITY AND INTELLIGENCE 192

Individual Differences in IQ 193

Group Differences: Race and Intelligence 195

CHAPTER 9

CONSCIOUSNESS 204

NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 204

Functions of Consciousness 204

Consciousness and Attention 205

PERSPECTIVES ON CONSCIOUSNESS 206

Psychodynamic Unconscious 206

Cognitive Unconscious 207

SLEEP AND DREAMING 208

Nature and Evolution of Sleep 208

Stages of Sleep 210

Three Views of Dreaming 211

ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 212

Meditation 212

Hypnosis 212

Drug-Induced States of Consciousness 213

CHAPTER 10

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 224

PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION 224

Psychodynamic Perspective 224

Behaviorist Perspective 225

Cognitive Perspective 226

Evolutionary Perspective 227

Applying the Perspectives on Motivation 228

EATING 229

Homeostasis 229

What Turns Hunger On? 230

What Turns Hunger Off? 231

Obesity 231

SEXUAL MOTIVATION 232

Sexual Response Cycle 232

Sexual Orientation 233

PSYCHOSOCIAL MOTIVES 234

Needs for Relatedness 234

Achievement and Other Agency Motives 234

NATURE AND CAUSES OF HUMAN MOTIVES 235

Emotion 235

Physiological Components 235

Subjective Experience 236

Emotional Expression 236

Taxonomy of Emotions 238

Emotion Regulation 239

Perspectives on Emotion 239

CHAPTER 11

HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING 249

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 249

History of Health Psychology 249

Theories of Health Behavior 250

Health-Compromising Behaviors 253

Barriers to Health Promotion 259

STRESS 262

Stress as a Psychobiological Process 262

Stress as a Transactional Process 263

Sources of Stress 263

Stress and Health 264

COPING 266

Coping Mechanisms 266

Social Support 267

FUTURE OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 267

CHAPTER 12

PERSONALITY 275

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES 275

Freud’s Models 276

Object Relations Theories 278

Contributions and Limitations of Psychodynamic Theories 279

COGNITIVE–SOCIAL THEORIES 279

Encoding and Personal Relevance 280

Expectancies and Competences 281

Self-Regulation 281

Contributions and Limitations of Cognitive–Social Theories 281

TRAIT THEORIES 282

Eysenck’s Theory 282 Five-Factor Model 283

Is Personality Consistent? 283

Contributions and Limitations of Trait Theories 285

HUMANISTIC THEORIES 285

Rogers’s Person-Centered Approach 285

Existential Approaches to Personality 286

Contributions and Limitations of Humanistic Theories 287

GENETICS AND PERSONALITY 287

PERSONALITY AND CULTURE 288

Linking Personality and Culture 288

CHAPTER 13

LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 297

ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 297

Nature and Nurture 297

Importance of Early Experience 298

Stages or Continuous Change? 298

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ATTACHMENT 299

Attachment in Infancy 299

Individual Differences in Attachment Patterns 299

Implications of Attachment for Later Development 300

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 301

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 301

Development from Adolescence through Old Age 303

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES 304

Prenatal Development 304

Infancy 305

Childhood and Adolescence 305

Adulthood and Aging 306

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, AND ADOLESCENCE 306

Perceptual and Cognitive Development in Infancy 306

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 308

Information-Processing Approach to Cognitive Development 311

Integrative Theories of Cognitive Development 311

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE IN ADULTHOOD 312

Cognitive Changes Associated with Aging 312

Aging and “Senility” 314

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 314

A Critical Period for Language Development? 314

What Infants Know about Language 315

From Babbling to Bantering 316

MORAL DEVELOPMENT 316

Role of Cognition 317

Role of Emotion 319

Nature of Development 320

CHAPTER 14

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 330

CULTURAL CONTEXT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 330

Culture and Psychopathology 330

Is Mental Illness Nothing but a Cultural Construction? 330

CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 331

Psychodynamic Perspective 331

Cognitive–Behavioral Perspective 332

Biological Approach 332

Systems Approach 333

Evolutionary Perspective 334

DESCRIPTIVE DIAGNOSIS: DSM-5 AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGICAL SYNDROMES 334

DSM-5 334

Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence 335

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 336

Schizophrenia 336 Depressive Disorders 339

Anxiety Disorders 341

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders 343

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders 343

Eating Disorders 344

Dissociative Disorders 345

Personality Disorders 345

CHAPTER 15

TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 361

PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES 361

Therapeutic Techniques 362

Varieties of Psychodynamic Therapy 363

COGNITIVE–BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES 363

Basic Principles 364

Classical Conditioning Techniques 364

Operant Conditioning Techniques 365

Modeling and Skills Training 365

Cognitive Therapy 366

HUMANISTIC, GROUP, AND FAMILY THERAPIES 366

Humanistic Therapies 366

Group Therapies 367

Family Therapies 368

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 369

Psychotropic Medications 369

Antipsychotic Medications 370

Antidepressant and Mood-Stabilizing Medications 371

Antianxiety Medications 371

Electroconvulsive Therapy and Psychosurgery 372

EVALUATING PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 372

Pharmacotherapy 373

Psychotherapy 373

CHAPTER 16

SOCIAL COGNITION 385

SOCIAL COGNITION 385

Perceiving Other People 385

Stereotypes and Prejudice 386

Attribution 390

Biases in Social Information Processing 391

Applications 392

ATTITUDES 392

Nature of Attitudes 393

Attitudes and Behavior 394

Persuasion 395

Cognitive Dissonance 396

THE SELF 397

Self-Esteem 398

Self-Consistency 399

Self-Presentation 399

Views of the Self 400

CHAPTER 17

INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES 411

RELATIONSHIPS 411

Factors Leading to Interpersonal Attraction 411

Love 413

Dark Side of Relationships 415

ALTRUISM 415

Theories of Altruism 415

Bystander Intervention 416

AGGRESSION 418

Violence and Culture 418

Violence and Gender 418

Roots of Violence 418

SOCIAL INFLUENCE 421

Obedience 421

Conformity 422

Group Processes 422

Everyday Social Influence 424

GLOSSARY 436

REFERENCES 445

INDEX 499

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