In 2009, Dr. Raymond was a Fulbright Scholar at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in South Africa. She continues to work as a Research Associate with NMMU colleagues on curriculum development in teacher education and barriers to learning at the university level. Her current research focuses on issues relating to serving learners facing barriers to learning in inclusive settings. In addition to Learners with Mild Disabilities, she has written Making Inclusive Education Work in Classrooms (Pearson South Africa, 2013) with five South African colleagues. She frequently presents on topics of inclusive practice in the United States and internationally, with a particular focus on Universal Design for Learning. She is an active member of the Council for Exceptional Children, serving as President of its Division for International Special Education Services (DISES) from 2015-2017.

Unit I Setting the Stage

Chapter 1 Perspectives on Disability

Chapter 2 Issues in Assessment and Identification

Chapter 3 Issues in Instruction and Placement

Unit II Who Are the Learners with Mild Disabilities?

Chapter 4 Learners with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Chapter 5 Learners with Learning Disabilities

Chapter 6 Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

Chapter 7 Learners with Difficulties in Attention, Communication, and Physical and Sensory Functioning

Chapter 8 Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Unit III What Are Learners with Mild Disabilities Like?

Chapter 9 Cognitive and Perceptual Characteristics

Chapter 10 Language Characteristics

Chapter 11 Academic Learning Characteristics

Chapter 12 Social–Emotional Characteristics 

Detailed Table of Contents

Unit I Setting the Stage 1

Chapter 1 Perspectives on Disability 3

Meet Benny 3Studying High-Prevalence Disabilities 5

Mild Does not Mean “not Serious” 7

The Power of Language 8

Labeling, Classifying, and Identifying 9

To Classify or Not to Classify 10

Additional Thoughts on Labeling 13

The Historical Context of Disability 13

Early History of Disability 14

The Middle Ages, the Renaissance,

and the Enlightenment 14

Disability Services in the United States (1800–1950) 16

Eugenics in Europe and the United States 17

The Testing Movement in Europe and the United States 18

Serving Children Identified as Having Disabilities 19

Disabilities in the United States from 1950 to the Present 19

Legislative and Legal Supports 22

Overview of the IDEA Principles 22

History of Rights Won in U.S. Courts 24

Special Needs Education Internationally 26

Trends in History 27

Assessment and Evaluation Requirements in Idea 31

Universal Design and Assessment 32

Purposes of Assessing Students with Special Educational Needs 34

Types of Assessment Instruments and Techniques 34

Norm-Referenced Assessment 34

Criterion-Referenced and Curriculum-Based Assessment 35

Performance Assessment 36

Portfolio Assessment 36

Functional Behavioral Assessment 37

Reporting on Student Progress: The Report Card 37

Best Practices in Assessment of Learners with Disabilities 38

Issues in Disability Identification 39

Categories as Social Constructions 42

Noncategorical Models of Service as an Alternative? 43

Response to Intervention: A Noncategorical Strategy For Assessment and Identification 44

Response to Intervention 44

A Prevention Framework as Support 46

Curriculum and Learners with Mild Disabilities 51

Alternatives to Instructional Accommodations 53

Instructional Strategies to Enhance Curricular Access 57

Explicit Teaching 58

Peer-Mediated Instruction 59

Cognitive Strategies 59

Positive Behavioral Supports 60

Instruction and Individualized Education Program Planning 60

Alternative Curricula and Assessments 61

Idea 2004 and the Location of Services 61

Least Restrictive Environment 63

Models of Service Commonly Used for Students with Mild

Disabilities 67

Inclusion: A Continuing Issue in Special Education 68

Naming This Group of Learners 76

Historical Foundations of Intellectual Disabilities 77

Development of the Definition of Intellectual Disabilities in the United States 78

Idea Definition of Intellectual Disabilities 79

Additional Perspectives on Defining Intellectual Disabilities 81

The New Generation of AAMR/AAIDD Definitions 81

Developmental Disabilities and Delay 82

An Alternative Definition with an Instructional Perspective 83

Levels of Severity 84

Educational Terminology 84

Supports and Intensity of Support Needs 85

Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities 86

Conditions Associated with Risk of Intellectual Disabilities 89

Biomedical Risk Factors 89

Environmental (Social, Behavioral, Educational) Risk Factors 91

Nature or Nurture? 92

Typical Characteristics of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities 93

Naming this Group of Learners 99

Historical Development of the Concept of Learning Disabilities 100

IDEA Definition of Specific Learning Disabilities 101

Assessment and Identification Issues 102

Issues with Discrepancy Determination (1965–2004) 103

IDEA 2004 and Changes in Identification Procedures 104

Response to Intervention as an Identification Process 104

An Alternative Definition of Learning Disabilities 105

Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 106

Conditions Associated with Learning Disabilities 109

Characteristics of Students with Learning Disabilities 109

Terms to Refer to This Group of Learners 116

Historical Foundations of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 117

Idea Definition of Emotional Disturbance 119

Social Maladjustment: Definition and Exclusion 120

An Alternative Definition of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 121

Assessment and Identification Issues 123

Response to Intervention 125

Levels of Severity 125

Prevalence of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 127

Factors Associated with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 130

Biological Factors 130

Family Factors 131

Environmental, Social, and School Factors 132

Types of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 133

Learners With Attention Problems 138

Naming This Group of Learners 138

Historical Development of the Concept of ADHD 139

ADHD and the IDEA 139

Current ADHD Definition in the DSM-5 140

Identification of Learners with ADHD 140

Presentations of ADHD 142

Levels of Severity 143

Prevalence of ADHD 143

Factors and Conditions Associated with ADHD 144

Characteristics of Individuals with ADHD 146

Issue: Should ADHD Be a Separate Category in IDEA? 148

Communication Disorders 150

Physical And Sensory Disabilities 151

Physical and Health Disabilities 151

Sensory Disabilities 152

Traumatic Brain Injury 153

Medication: A Persistent Issue 154

Naming This Group of Learners 159

Historical Development of The Concept of Autism Spectrum Disorders 160

IDEA Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders 161

The Psychiatric/Medical Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders (DSM-5 ) 162

Assessment and Identification Issues 163

Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders 165

Levels of Severity 167

Conditions Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders 167

Characteristics of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 168

Social Communication and Interaction 168

Restricted, Repetitive Behaviors, Interests, or Activities 169

Other Related Characteristics and Behaviors 170

Diagnostic Conditions Previously Included on the Spectrum 171

Cognitive Theory and Approaches to Mild Disabilities 178

Constructivist Perspectives 179

Piaget and Biological Constructivism 179

Vygotsky and Social Constructivism 181

Cognitive Styles Research 183

Field Dependence/Independence 183

Impulsivity and Reflectivity 184

Information-Processing Theory 185

Structural Storage Components 186

Strategic Control Components 191

Executive Functions 204

Definition of Language 209

Impairments in Speech and Language 210

Language Components and Skills 210

Phonology 211

Morphology 212

Syntax 213

Semantics 213

Pragmatics 215

Receptive and Expressive Language Channels 218

Language Functions 219

Listening 219

Speaking 220

Reading 221

Writing 221

Common Language Characteristics of Learners With Mild Disabilities 224

Language Difference or Disability? 226

Implications of Language Characteristics for Thinking and Learning 231

What Is Learning? 237

Stages of Learning 237

Acquisition and Reversion 238

Proficiency and Automaticity 238

Maintenance 240

Generalization 240

Adaptation 240

Critical Learning Needs of Students with Disabilities 241

The Role of Motivation 242

Extrinsic Motivation 243

Intrinsic Motivation 243

Locus of Control and Attributions of Success or Failure 246

External Causal Attributions and Locus of Control 247

Internal Causal Attributions and Locus of Control 248

Spirals of Failure or Success 249

Learned Helplessness 249

Adolescents with Disabilities in Behavior and Learning 251

Self-Determination 254

Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences 256

Learning Styles 256

Multiple Intelligences 257

Universal Design for Learning 258

Instructional Needs of Learners with Disabilities 258

Time Allowed for Instruction 259

Persistence or Motivation 259

Pupils’ Aptitude for Instruction 261

Ability to Understand Instruction 261

Quality of Instruction 261

Perspectives on Social–Emotional Characteristics 265

Developmental Perspectives 265

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 266

Emotional Development 267

Development of Social Perspective Taking 269

Social Competence and Cognitive Development 271

Social Intelligence 273

Emotional Competence 274

Social Cognitive Delay 275

The Relationship Between Problems in Behavior and Problems in Learning 277

Behavior from an Ecological Perspective 279

Risk and Resilience 280

Maladaptive Behavior 283

Patterns of Maladaptive Behavior 284

Externalizing Behaviors 284

Internalizing Behaviors 286

Idea 2004 and Serious Discipline Problems 288

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