9780201758672

The first book covering the state of the art in 3D Interfaces, providing guidelines and practical examples for both design and evaluation.

Doug A. Bowman is an assistant professor of computer science at Virginia Tech Ernst Kruijff is a researcher at the Fraunhofer Institute for Media Communication in Germany Joseph J. Laviola, Jr., is currently working on obtaining his Ph.D. in computer science at Brown University Ivan Poupyrev is a researcher at the Interaction Laboratory, Sony Computer Science Labs in Tokyo

Foreword

xv

Preface

xix

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF 3D USER INTERFACES

1

(26)

Chapter 1 Introduction to 3D User Interfaces

3

(8)

1.1. What Are 3D User Interfaces?

3

(1)

1.2. Why 3D User Interfaces?

4

(2)

1.3. Terminology

6

(2)

1.4. Application Areas

8

(1)

1.5. Conclusion

9

(2)

Chapter 2 3D User Interfaces: History and Roadmap

11

(16)

2.1. History of 3D UIs

11

(3)

2.2. Roadmap to 3D UIs

14

(11)

2.2.1. Areas Informing the Design of 3D UIs

15

(3)

2.2.2. 3D UI Subareas

18

(4)

2.2.3. Areas Impacted by 3D UIs

22

(3)

2.3. Scope of This Book

25

(1)

2.4. Conclusion

26

(1)

PART II HARDWARE TECHNOLOGIES FOR 3D USER INTERFACES

27

(108)

Chapter 3 3D User Interface Output Hardware

29

(58)

3.1. Introduction

29

(2)

3.1.1. Chapter Roadmap

30

(1)

3.2. Visual Displays

31

(28)

3.2.1. Visual Display Characteristics

31

(3)

3.2.2. Depth Cues

34

(6)

3.2.3. Visual Display Device Types

40

(19)

3.3. Auditory Displays

59

(9)

3.3.1. 3D Sound Localization Cues

59

(3)

3.3.2. 3D Sound Generation

62

(2)

3.3.3. Sound System Configurations

64

(2)

3.3.4. Audio in 3D Interfaces

66

(2)

3.4. Haptic Displays

68

(9)

3.4.1. Haptic Cues

68

(2)

3.4.2. Haptic Display Characteristics

70

(1)

3.4.3. Haptic Display Types

71

(6)

3.4.4. Haptic Displays in 3D Interfaces

77

(1)

3.5. Design Guidelines: Choosing Output Devices for 3D User Interfaces

77

(6)

3.6. Conclusion

83

(4)

Chapter 4 3D User Interface Input Hardware

87

(48)

4.1. Introduction

87

(3)

4.1.1. Input Device Characteristics

88

(1)

4.1.2. Chapter Roadmap

89

(1)

4.2. Desktop Input Devices

90

(6)

4.2.1. Keyboards

91

(1)

4.2.2. 2D Mice and Trackballs

91

(1)

4.2.3. Pen-Based Tablets

92

(1)

4.2.4. Joysticks

93

(2)

4.2.5. Six-DOF Input Devices for the Desktop

95

(1)

4.3. Tracking Devices

96

(14)

4.3.1. Motion Tracking

96

(9)

4.3.2. Eye Tracking

105

(1)

4.3.3. Data Gloves

106

(4)

4.4. 3D Mice

110

(4)

4.4.1. Handheld 3D Mice

111

(2)

4.4.2. User-Worn 3D Mice

113

(1)

4.5. Special-Purpose Input Devices

114

(4)

4.6. Direct Human Input

118

(4)

4.6.1. Speech Input

119

(1)

4.6.2. Bioelectric Input

120

(1)

4.6.3. Brain Input

120

(2)

4.7. Home-Brewed Input Devices

122

(4)

4.7.1. Strategies for Building Input Devices

122

(2)

4.7.2. Connecting the Home-Brewed Input Device to the Computer

124

(2)

4.8. Choosing Input Devices for 3D Interfaces

126

(13)

4.8.1. Important Considerations

126

(2)

4.8.2. Input Device Taxonomies

128

(4)

4.8.3. Empirical Evaluations

132

(3)

PART III 3D INTERACTION TECHNIQUES

135

(176)

Chapter 5 Selection and Manipulation

139

(44)

5.1. Introduction

139

(1)

5.1.1. Chapter Roadmap

140

(1)

5.2. 3D Manipulation Tasks

140

(3)

5.2.1. Canonical Manipulation Tasks

141

(2)

5.2.2. Application-Specific Manipulation Tasks

143

(1)

5.3. Manipulation Techniques and Input Devices

143

(4)

5.3.1. Control Dimensions and Integrated Control in 3D Manipulation

144

(1)

5.3.2. Force versus Position Control

145

(1)

5.3.3. Device Placement and Form-Factor in 3D Manipulation

145

(2)

5.4. Interaction Techniques for 3D Manipulation

147

(32)

5.4.1. Classifications of Manipulation Techniques

147

(3)

5.4.2. Interacting by Pointing

150

(8)

5.4.3. Direct Manipulation: Virtual Hand Techniques

158

(4)

5.4.4. World-in-Miniature

162

(1)

5.4.5. Combining Techniques

163

(5)

5.4.6. Nonisomorphic 3D Rotation

168

(3)

5.4.7. Desktop 3D Manipulation

171

(8)

5.5. Design Guidelines

179

(4)

Chapter 6 Travel

183

(44)

6.1. Introduction

183

(1)

6.1.1. Chapter Roadmap

184

(1)

6.2. 3D Travel Tasks

184

(4)

6.2.1. Exploration

185

(1)

6.2.2. Search

185

(1)

6.2.3. Maneuvering

186

(1)

6.2.4. Additional Travel Task Characteristics

187

(1)

6.3. Travel Techniques

188

(34)

6.3.1. Technique Classifications

188

(4)

6.3.2. Physical Locomotion Techniques

192

(7)

6.3.3. Steering Techniques

199

(7)

6.3.4. Route-Planning Techniques

206

(4)

6.3.5. Target-Based Techniques

210

(4)

6.3.6. Manual Manipulation Techniques

214

(2)

6.3.7. Travel-by-Scaling Techniques

216

(1)

6.3.8. Viewpoint Orientation Techniques

217

(2)

6.3.9. Velocity Specification Techniques

219

(1)

6.3.10. Integrated Camera Controls for Desktop 3D Environments

220

(2)

6.4. Design Guidelines

222

(5)

Chapter 7 Wayfinding

227

(28)

7.1. Introduction

227

(2)

7.1.1. Chapter Roadmap

229

(1)

7.2. Theoretical Foundations

229

(5)

7.2.1. Wayfinding Tasks

231

(1)

7.2.2. Types of Spatial Knowledge

231

(1)

7.2.3. Egocentric and Exocentric Reference Frames

232

(2)

7.3. User-Centered Wayfinding Support

234

(5)

7.3.1. Field of View

235

(1)

7.3.2. Motion Cues

235

(1)

7.3.3. Multisensory Output

236

(1)

7.3.4. Presence

237

(1)

7.3.5. Search Strategies

237

(2)

7.4. Environment-Centered Wayfinding Support

239

(11)

7.4.1. Environment Design

239

(3)

7.4.2. Artificial Cues

242

(8)

7.5. Evaluating Wayfinding Aids

250

(1)

7.6. Design Guidelines

251

(2)

7.7. Conclusion

253

(2)

Chapter 8 System Control

255

(1)

8.1. Introduction

255

(32)

8.1.1. Human Factors of System Control

257

(1)

8.1.2. Input Devices

257

(1)

8.1.3. System- and Application-Level Factors

258

(1)

8.1.4. Chapter Roadmap

258

(1)

8.2. Classification

259

(1)

8.3. Graphical Menus

260

(1)

8.3.1. Techniques

260

(5)

8.3.2. Design and Implementation Issues

265

(2)

8.3.3. Practical Application

267

(1)

8.4. Voice Commands

268

(1)

8.4.1. Techniques

268

(1)

8.4.2. Design and Implementation Issues

268

(1)

8.4.3. Practical Application

269

(1)

8.5. Gestural Commands

270

(1)

8.5.1. Techniques

271

(1)

8.5.2. Design and Implementation Issues

272

(1)

8.5.3. Practical Application

273

(1)

8.6. Tools

273

(1)

8.6.1. Techniques

274

(2)

8.6.2. Design and Implementation Issues

276

(1)

8.6.3. Practical Application

277

(1)

8.7. Multimodal System Control Techniques

278

(2)

8.8. Design Guidelines

280

(2)

8.9. Case Study: Mixing System Control Methods

282

(1)

8.9.1. The ProViT Application

282

(1)

8.9.2. System Control Design Approach for ProViT

283

(1)

8.9.3. Mapping of Tasks to Devices

283

(1)

8.9.4. Placement of System Control

284

(1)

8.9.5. System Control Feedback

284

(1)

8.10. Conclusion

285

(2)

Chapter 9 Symbolic Input

287

(24)

9.1. Introduction

287

(6)

9.1.1. Why Is Symbolic Input Important?

288

(1)

9.1.2. Scenarios of Use

288

(2)

9.1.3. Brief History of Symbolic Input

290

(1)

9.1.4. Distinctive Features of Symbolic Input in 3D UIs

291

(1)

9.1.5. Chapter Roadmap

292

(1)

9.2. Symbolic Input Tasks

293

(1)

9.2.1. Alphanumeric Input

293

(1)

9.2.2. Editing Alphanumeric Symbols

293

(1)

9.2.3. Markup Input

294

(1)

9.3. Symbolic Input Techniques

294

(12)

9.3.1. Keyboard-Based Techniques

294

(6)

9.3.2. Pen-Based Techniques

300

(3)

9.3.3. Gesture-Based Techniques

303

(1)

9.3.4. Speech-Based Techniques

304

(2)

9.4. Design Guidelines

306

(4)

9.5. Beyond Text and Number Entry

310

(1)

PART IV DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING 3D USER INTERFACES

311

(74)

Chapter 10 Strategies for Designing and Developing 3D User Interfaces

313

(36)

10.1. Introduction

313

(2)

10.1.1. Designing for Humans

314

(1)

10.1.2. Inventing 3D User Interfaces

314

(1)

10.1.3. Chapter Roadmap

315

(1)

10.2. Designing for Humans

315

(15)

10.2.1. Feedback in 3D User Interfaces

315

(7)

10.2.2. Constraints

322

(1)

10.2.3. Two-Handed Control

323

(4)

10.2.4. ,Designing for Different User Groups

327

(1)

10.2.5. Designing for User Comfort

328

(2)

10.3. Inventing 3D User Interfaces

330

(15)

10.3.1. Borrowing from the Real World

331

(4)

10.3.2. Adapting from 2D User Interfaces

335

(5)

10.3.3. Magic and Aesthetics

340

(5)

10.4. Design Guidelines

345

(4)

Chapter 11 Evaluation of 3D User Interfaces

349

(36)

11.1. Introduction

349

(2)

11.1.1. Purposes of Evaluation

350

(1)

11.1.2. Terminology

351

(1)

11.1.3. Chapter Roadmap

351

(1)

11.2. Background

351

(6)

11.2.1. Tools for Evaluation Design and Implementation

352

(2)

11.2.2. Evaluation Methods Used for 3D Interfaces

354

(3)

11.3. Evaluation Metrics for 3D Interfaces

357

(3)

11.3.1. System Performance Metrics

357

(1)

11.3.2. Task Performance Metrics

358

(1)

11.3.3. User Preference Metrics

358

(2)

11.4. Distinctive Characteristics of 3D Interface Evaluation

360

(7)

11.4.1. Physical Environment Issues

360

(2)

11.4.2. Evaluator Issues

362

(1)

11.4.3. User Issues

363

(2)

11.4.4. Evaluation Type Issues

365

(2)

11.4.5. Miscellaneous Issues

367

(1)

11.5. Classification of 3D Evaluation Methods

367

(2)

11.6. Two Multimethod Approaches

369

(13)

11.6.1. Testbed Evaluation Approach

370

(5)

11.6.2. Sequential Evaluation Approach

375

(3)

11.6.3. Comparison of Approaches

378

(4)

11.7. Guidelines for 3D Interface Evaluation

382

(5)

11.7.1. General Guidelines

382

(1)

11.7.2. Guidelines for Formal Experimentation

383

(2)

PART V THE FUTURE OF 3D USER INTERFACES

385

(34)

Chapter 12 Beyond Virtual: 3D User Interfaces for the Real World

387

(20)

12.1. Introduction

387

(4)

12.1.1. What Is Augmented Reality?

389

(1)

12.1.2. Bringing Virtual Interfaces into the Real World

390

(1)

12.1.3. Chapter Roadmap

391

(1)

12.2. AR Interfaces as 3D Data Browsers

391

(3)

12.3. 3D Augmented Reality Interfaces

394

(1)

12.4. Augmented Surfaces and Tangible Interfaces

395

(2)

12.5. Tangible AR Interfaces

397

(6)

12.5.1. Design of Tangible AR

398

(2)

12.5.2. Time-Multiplexed Interaction in Tangible AR

400

(2)

12.5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Tangible AR

402

(1)

12.6. Agents in AR

403

(1)

12.7. Transitional AR-VR Interfaces

404

(1)

12.8. Conclusion

405

(2)

Chapter 13 The Future of 3D User Interfaces

407

(12)

13.1. Questions about 3D UI Technology

407

(3)

13.2. Questions about 3D Interaction Techniques

410

(2)

13.3. Questions about 3D UI Design and Development

412

(3)

13.4. Questions about 3D UI Evaluation

415

(1)

13.5. Million-Dollar Questions

416

(3)

Appendix A Quick Reference Guide to 3D User Interface Mathematics

419

(10)

A.1. Scalars

420

(1)

A.2. Vectors

420

(1)

A.3. Points

421

(1)

A.4. Matrices

422

(2)

A.5. Quaternions

424

(5)

Bibliography

429

(28)

Index

457

What is included with this book?

The New copy of this book will include any supplemental materials advertised. Please check the title of the book to determine if it should include any access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.

The Used, Rental and eBook copies of this book are not guaranteed to include any supplemental materials. Typically, only the book itself is included. This is true even if the title states it includes any access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.

An architect sits in her home office, putting the final touches on the design of the new entrance to the city park. A three-dimensional virtual model of the park appears in front of her on the desk's surface. She nudges a pathway slightly to the right to avoid a low-lying area, and then makes the model life-size so she can walk along the path to view the effect. "Those dark colors on the sign at the entrance are too foreboding," she thinks, so she quickly changes the color palette to brighter primary colors. She looks up and notices that the clients are arriving for the final design review meeting. They are located in other offices around the city, but they can all view the 3D model and make suggested changes, as well as communicate with one another. "What's the construction plan?" asks one of the clients. The architect starts an animation showing the progress of the project from start to finish. "That first step may not work," says the client. "The excavation is much too close to the existing playground. Let me show you." He looks out his window, which has a view of the park, and overlays the virtual construction plan on it. "You're right," says the architect, "let's plan to move the playground slightlythat will be much cheaper than changing the construction site." After viewing the effects of the change, all agree that this plan will work, and the meeting adjourns. This scenario and others like it illustrate the enormous potential of 3D environments and applications. The technology to realize such a vision is available now, although it will certainly be improved. But the scenario also leaves out a great deal of informationinformation that is crucial to making this dream a reality. How did the architect load the park model, and how does she manipulate her view of it? What technique is used to change the pathway? How can multiple clients all manipulate the model at the same time? How do the participants appear to each other in the virtual space? How is the speed and playback of the animation controlled? How did the client instruct the system to merge the real and virtual scenes? These questions all relate to the design of theuser interface(UI) andinteraction techniquesfor this 3D application, an area that is usually given only a cursory treatment in futuristic films and books. The scenarios usually either assume that all interaction between the user and the system will be "natural"based on techniques like intuitive gestures and speechor "automatic"the system will be so intelligent that it will deduce the user's intentions. But is this type of interaction realistic, or even desirable? This book addresses the critical area of3D UI designa field that seeks to answer detailed questions, like those above, that make the difference between a 3D system that is usable and efficient and one that causes user frustration, errors, and even physical discomfort. We present practical information for developers, the latest research results, easy-to-follow guidelines for the UI designer, and relevant application examples. Although there are quite a few books devoted to UIs in general and to 2D UI design in particular, 3D UIs have received significantly less attention. The results of work in the field are scattered throughout numerous conference proceedings, journal articles, single book chapters, and Web sites. This field deserves a reference and educational text that integrates the best practices and state-of-the-art research, and that's why this book was created. How This Book Came to Be The story of this book begins in April 1998, when Ivan Poupyrev and Doug Bowman were doctoral students at Hiroshima Unive

Amazon no longer offers textbook rentals. We do!

3D User Interfaces : Theory and Practice

3D User Interfaces : Theory and Practice

0201758679

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

Excerpts