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Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences

ISBN: 9780534558116 | 0534558119
Edition: 2nd
Format: Paperback
Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing
Pub. Date: 7/20/2005

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SummaryTable of Contents
Best-selling statistics author, Fredrick J. Gravetter, and co-author Lori-Ann B. Forzano have written a text for research methods that helps student see how interesting and exciting experimental and non-experimental research can be. Inviting and conversational, RESEARCH METHODS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES, Second Edition leads students through the research process from start to finish. Organized to match the research process, the text opens with tips and strategies for generating research ideas, moves to selecting measures and participants, and... MORE
Author Biographiesv
Prefacevii
Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method
1(33)
Chapter Overview
... MORE1(1)
Introduction to Research Methodology
2(4)
Why Take a Research Methods Course?
2(1)
How Is Understanding Research Methodology Useful?
2(4)
Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
6(10)
The Method of Tenacity
7(1)
The Method of Intuition
7(1)
The Method of Authority
8(3)
The Rational Method
11(3)
The Empirical Method
14(2)
The Scientific Method
16(7)
The Steps of the Scientific Method
16(4)
Other Elements of the Scientific Method
20(3)
The Research Process
23(11)
Step 1: Find a Research Idea
23(2)
Step 2: Convert Your Research Idea Into a Research Hypothesis
25(3)
Step 3: Determine How You Will Define and Measure Your Variables
28(1)
Step 4: Identify the Participants or Subjects for the Study
28(1)
Step 5: Select a Research Strategy
29(1)
Step 6: Select a Research Design
29(1)
Step 7: Conduct the Study
30(1)
Step 8: Evaluate the Data
30(1)
Step 9: Report the Results
30(1)
Step 10: Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea
30(1)
Chapter Summary
31(1)
Key Words
32(1)
Exercises
32(1)
Other Activities
33(1)
Research Ideas
34(28)
Chapter Overview
34(1)
Getting Started
35(2)
Pick a Topic in Which You Are Interested
35(1)
Do Your Homework
35(1)
Keep an Open Mind
36(1)
Focus, Focus, Focus
36(1)
Take One Step at a Time
36(1)
Finding a General Topic Area
37(4)
Common Sources of Research Topics
37(2)
Common Mistakes in Choosing a Research Topic
39(2)
Finding and Using Background Literature
41(4)
Primary and Secondary Sources
42(1)
The Purpose of a Literature Search
43(2)
Conducting a Literature Search
45(12)
Starting Points
45(2)
Using Online Databases
47(1)
Using PsycInfo
48(3)
Beginning a Literature Search
51(3)
The Process of Conducting a Literature Search
54(3)
Finding an Idea for a New Research Study
57(5)
Converting an Idea Into a Research Hypothesis
58(1)
Chapter Summary
59(1)
Key Words
59(1)
Exercises
60(1)
Other Activities
60(2)
Defining and Measuring Variables
62(26)
Chapter Overview
62(1)
An Overview of Measurement
63(1)
Constructs and Operational Definitions
64(3)
Theories and Constructs
65(1)
Operational Definitions
65(1)
Using Operational Definitions
66(1)
Validity and Reliability of Measurement
67(9)
Validity of Measurement
67(5)
Reliability of Measurement
72(3)
The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
75(1)
Scales of Measurement
76(2)
The Nominal Scale
76(1)
The Ordinal Scale
76(1)
The Interval Scale
77(1)
The Ratio Scale
77(1)
Selecting a Scale of Measurement
77(1)
Modalities of Measurement
78(3)
Self-Report Measures
78(1)
Physiological Measures
79(1)
Behavioral Measures
80(1)
Other Aspects of Measurement
81(7)
Multiple Measures
81(1)
Sensitivity and Range Effects
81(1)
Participant Reactivity and Experimenter Bias
82(3)
Selecting a Measurement Procedure
85(1)
Chapter Summary
85(1)
Key Words
86(1)
Exercises
86(1)
Other Activities
87(1)
Ethics in Research
88(28)
Chapter Overview
88(1)
Introduction
89(1)
Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process
89(1)
The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility
90(1)
Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research
90(17)
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants
90(3)
American Psychological Association (APA) Guidelines
93(12)
The Institutional Review Board (IRB)
105(2)
Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research
107(3)
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Nonhuman Subjects
108(1)
American Psychological Association (APA) Guidelines
108(1)
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
109(1)
Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity
110(6)
Fraud in Science
110(2)
Plagiarism
112(1)
Chapter Summary
113(1)
Key Words
114(1)
Exercises
114(1)
Other Activities
114(2)
Selecting Research Participants
116(17)
Chapter Overview
116(1)
Introduction
117(4)
Populations and Samples
117(2)
Representative Samples
119(1)
Sampling Basics
120(1)
Probability Sampling Methods
121(6)
Simple Random Sampling
121(2)
Systematic Sampling
123(1)
Stratified Random Sampling
124(1)
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
125(1)
Cluster Sampling
126(1)
Combined-Strategy Sampling
127(1)
Probability Sampling Methods Summary
127(1)
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
127(6)
Convenience Sampling
127(4)
Chapter Summary
131(1)
Key Words
131(1)
Exercises
131(1)
Other Activities
132(1)
Research Strategies and Validity
133(36)
Chapter Overview
133(1)
Research Strategies
134(4)
The Experimental Research Strategy
134(1)
The Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy
134(1)
The Nonexperimental Research Strategy
135(1)
The Correlational Research Strategy
136(1)
The Descriptive Research Strategy
136(1)
Data Structures and Statistical Analysis
137(1)
Summary
137(1)
Internal and External Validity
138(5)
Internal Validity
139(1)
External Validity
140(2)
Validity and the Quality of a Research Study
142(1)
Threats to Internal Validity
143(9)
Extraneous Variables
143(1)
Confounding Variables
143(2)
Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables and Internal Validity
145(1)
Category 1: General Threats to Internal Validity for All Studies: Environmental Variables
146(1)
Category 2: Threats to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing Different Groups
147(1)
Category 3: Threats to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing One Group Over Time
147(5)
Threats to External Validity
152(6)
Category 1: Generalizing Across Participants or Subjects
152(3)
Category 2: Generalizing Across Features of a Study
155(1)
Category 3: Generalizing Across Features of Measures
156(2)
More About Internal and External Validity
158(4)
Balancing Internal and External Validity
159(1)
Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity
159(3)
Exaggerated Variables
162(1)
Validity and Individual Research Strategies
162(2)
Validity and the Experimental Strategy
163(1)
Validity and the Quasi-Experimental Strategy
163(1)
Validity and the Nonexperimental Strategy
163(1)
Validity and the Correlational Strategy
163(1)
Validity and the Descriptive Strategy
164(1)
Research Strategies, Research Designs, and Research Procedures
164(5)
Research Strategies
164(1)
Research Designs
164(1)
Research Procedures
165(1)
Chapter Summary
166(1)
Key Words
167(1)
Exercises
167(1)
Other Activities
168(1)
Experimental Research Strategy
169(29)
Chapter Overview
169(1)
Cause-and-Effect Relationships
170(5)
Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy
170(3)
Causation and the Third-Variable Problem
173(1)
Causation and the Directionality Problem
174(1)
Controlling Nature
174(1)
Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment
175(5)
Manipulation
176(1)
Manipulation and the Directionality Problem
176(2)
Control and the Third-Variable Problem
178(2)
Dealing with Extraneous Variables
180(6)
Control by Holding Constant or Matching
181(2)
Control by Randomization
183(2)
Comparing Methods of Control
185(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods
185(1)
Control Groups
186(3)
No-Treatment Control Groups
187(1)
Placebo Control Groups
187(2)
Manipulation Checks
189(1)
Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies
190(8)
Simulation
191(2)
Field Studies
193(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies
194(1)
Chapter Summary
194(1)
Key Words
195(1)
Exercises
195(2)
Other Activities
197(1)
Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design
198(26)
Chapter Overview
198(1)
Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments
199(4)
Review of the Experimental Research Strategy
199(1)
Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs
199(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs
201(2)
Individual Differences as Confounding Variables
203(2)
Equivalent Groups
204(1)
Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences
205(3)
Random Assignment (Randomization)
205(1)
Matching Groups (Matched Assignment)
206(1)
Holding Variables Constant or Restricting Range of Variability
207(1)
Summary and Recommendations
208(1)
Individual Differences and Variability
208(7)
Differences Between Treatments and Variance Within Treatments
211(2)
Minimizing Variance Within Treatments
213(1)
Summary and Recommendations
214(1)
Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects Designs
215(2)
Differential Attrition
215(1)
Diffusion or Imitation of Treatment
216(1)
Compensatory Equalization
216(1)
Compensatory Rivalry
217(1)
Resentful Demoralization
217(1)
Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-Subjects Designs
217(7)
Two-Group Mean Difference
217(2)
Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups
219(2)
Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups
221(1)
Chapter Summary
222(1)
Key Words
222(1)
Exercises
222(1)
Other Activities
223(1)
Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design
224(23)
Chapter Overview
224(1)
Introduction to Within-Subjects Experiments
225(7)
Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs
225(1)
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs
226(3)
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs
229(3)
Threats to Internal Validity for Within-Subjects Designs
232(3)
Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects
232(2)
Order Effects as a Confounding Variable
234(1)
Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects
235(7)
Controlling Time
235(1)
Switch to a Between-Subjects Design
236(1)
Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments With Respect to Time
236(3)
Limitations of Counterbalancing
239(3)
Applications and Statistical Analyses of Within-Subjects Designs
242(2)
Two-Treatment Designs
242(1)
Multiple-Treatment Designs
243(1)
Matched-Subjects Designs
244(3)
Chapter Summary
245(1)
Key Words
246(1)
Exercises
246(1)
Other Activities
246(1)
Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Nonequivalent Group, Pre-Post, and Developmental Designs
247(27)
Chapter Overview
247(1)
Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies
248(3)
The Structure of Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
249(2)
Between-Subjects Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs: Nonequivalent Group Designs
251(7)
Threats to Internal Validity for Nonequivalent Group Designs
251(1)
Differential Research Design
252(2)
Posttest-Only Nonequivalent Control Group Design
254(2)
Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group Design
256(2)
Within-Subjects Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs: Pre-Post Designs
258(5)
Threats to Internal Validity for Pre-Post Designs
258(1)
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
258(1)
Time-Series and Interrupted Time-Series Designs
259(3)
Equivalent Time-Samples Design
262(1)
Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs
263(1)
Developmental Research Designs
263(7)
Cross-Sectional Research Design
264(3)
Longitudinal Research Design
267(3)
Terminology in Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Developmental Designs
270(4)
Chapter Summary
271(1)
Key Words
271(1)
Exercises
272(1)
Other Activities
272(2)
Factorial Designs
274(33)
Chapter Overview
274(1)
Introduction to Factorial Designs
275(2)
Experimental Factorial Designs
275(2)
Main Effects and Interactions
277(5)
Identifying Interactions
280(2)
More About Interactions
282(6)
Alternative Definitions of Interaction
282(2)
Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions
284(2)
Independence of Main Effects and Interactions
286(2)
Types of Factorial Designs
288(6)
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs
288(2)
Experimental and Nonexperimental or Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies
290(2)
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Designs
292(1)
Higher-Order Factorial Designs
293(1)
Applications of Factorial Designs
294(13)
Adding a Second Factor to a Previous Study
294(3)
Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Designs
297(1)
Evaluating Order Effects in Within-Subjects Designs
298(6)
Chapter Summary
304(1)
Key Words
305(1)
Exercises
305(1)
Other Activities
306(1)
The Correlational Research Strategy
307(15)
Chapter Overview
307(1)
An Introduction to Correlational Research
308(1)
The Data for a Correlational Study
309(4)
Comparing Correlational, Experimental, and Differential Research
312(1)
Applications of the Correlational Strategy
313(3)
Prediction
313(1)
Reliability and Validity
314(1)
Evaluating Theories
315(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational Research Strategy
316(2)
Relationships With More Than Two Variables
318(4)
Chapter Summary
319(1)
Key Words
320(1)
Exercises
320(1)
Other Activities
321(1)
Descriptive Research Strategy
322(28)
Chapter Overview
322(1)
An Introduction to Descriptive Research
323(1)
Observational Research Design
324(7)
Behavioral Observation
324(2)
Content Analysis and Archival Research
326(1)
Types of Observation and Examples
327(3)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Research Designs
330(1)
Survey Research Design
331(12)
Types of Questions
332(5)
Constructing a Survey
337(1)
Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals
338(1)
Administering a Survey
338(4)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research
342(1)
Case Study Design
343(7)
Applications of the Case Study Design
344(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design
345(2)
Chapter Summary
347(1)
Key Words
348(1)
Exercises
348(1)
Other Activities
349(1)
Single-Subject Research Designs
350(34)
Chapter Overview
350(1)
Introduction
351(2)
Evaluating the Results From a Single-Subject Study
352(1)
Phases and Phase Changes
353(8)
Level, Trend, and Stability
354(4)
Changing Phases
358(1)
Visual Inspection Techniques
359(2)
The ABAB Reversal Design
361(5)
Limitations of the ABAB Design
365(1)
More Complex Phase-Change Designs
366(4)
Dismantling or Component-Analysis Design
368(2)
Multiple-Baseline Designs
370(5)
Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Design
372(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multiple-Baseline Design
373(2)
The Changing-Criterion Design
375(2)
The Alternating-Treatments Design
377(2)
Application of the Alternating-Treatments Design
378(1)
General Strengths and Weaknesses of Single-Subject Designs
379(5)
Advantages of Single-Subject Designs
379(1)
Disadvantages of Single-Subject Designs
380(2)
Chapter Summary
382(1)
Key Words
382(1)
Exercises
383(1)
Other Activities
383(1)
Statistical Evaluation of Data
384(44)
Chapter Overview
384(1)
The Role of Statistics in the Research Process
385(2)
Planning Ahead
385(1)
Statistics Terminology
386(1)
Descriptive Statistics
387(16)
Frequency Distributions
387(3)
Measures of Central Tendency
390(2)
Measures of Variability
392(2)
Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores)
394(2)
Describing Nominal and Ordinal Data
396(1)
Using Graphs to Summarize Data
397(1)
Correlations
398(5)
Inferential Statistics
403(10)
Hypothesis Tests
404(4)
Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test
408(1)
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
409(1)
Measures of Effect Size
410(3)
Examples of Hypothesis Tests
413(6)
Comparing Groups of Scores: Statistical Tests for the Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental Research Strategies
414(1)
Tests for Mean Differences
414(3)
Comparing Proportions
417(1)
Evaluating Relationships: Statistical Tests for the Correlational Research Strategy
418(1)
Special Statistics for Research
419(9)
The Spearman-Brown Formula
420(1)
The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20
421(1)
Cronbach's Alpha
421(1)
Cohen's Kappa
422(2)
Chapter Summary
424(1)
Key Words
425(1)
Exercises
425(2)
Other Activities
427(1)
Writing an Apa-Style Research Report
428(73)
Chapter Overview
428(1)
The Goal of a Research Report
429(1)
General Apa Guidelines for Writing Style and Format
430(3)
Some Elements of Writing Style
430(2)
Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing
432(1)
Manuscript Pages
433(1)
Page Numbers and Page Headers
433(1)
The Elements of an Apa-Style Research Report
433(14)
Title Page
434(1)
Abstract
435(1)
Introduction
436(2)
Method
438(2)
Results
440(2)
Discussion
442(2)
References
444(2)
Appendix
446(1)
Author Note
447(1)
Tables, Figure Captions, and Figures
447(1)
Submitting a Manuscript for Publication
447(2)
Writing a Research Proposal
449(6)
Why Write a Research Proposal?
450(1)
How to Write a Research Proposal
451(1)
Chapter Summary
451(1)
Key Words
452(1)
Exercises
452(1)
Other Activities
452(3)
APPENDICES
A. Random Number Table and Instructions
455(4)
B. Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables
459(26)
C. Instructions for Using SPSS
485(16)
Glossary501(18)
References519(6)
Credits525(2)
Name Index527(2)
Subject Index529

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