9781118649930

An up to date account of renewable sources of electricity generation and their integration into power systems

With the growth in installed capacity of renewable energy (RE) generation, many countries such as the UK are relying on higher levels of RE generation to meet targets for reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In the face of this, the integration issue is now of increasing concern, in particular to system operators.

This updated text describes the individual renewable technologies and their power generation characteristics alongside an expanded introduction to power systems and the challenges posed by high levels of penetrations from such technologies, together with an account of technologies and changes to system operation that can ease RE integration.

Features of this edition:

Covers power conditioning, the characteristics of RE generators, with emphasis on their time varying nature, and the use of power electronics in interfacing RE sources to grids
Outlines up to date RE integration issues such as power flow in networks supplied from a combination of conventional and renewable energy sources
Updated coverage of the economics of power generation and the role of markets in delivering investment in sustainable solutions
Considers the challenge of maintaining power balance in a system with increasing RE input, including recent moves toward power system frequency support from RE sources
Offers an insightful perspective on the shape of future power systems including offshore networks and demand side management
Includes worked examples that enhance this edition’s suitability as a textbook for introductory courses in RE systems technology

Firmly established as an essential reference, the Second Edition of Renewable Energy in Power Systems will prove a real asset to engineers and others involved in both the traditional power and fast growing renewables sector. This text should also be of particular benefit to students of electrical power engineering and will additionally appeal to non-specialists through the inclusion of background material covering the basics of electricity generation.

DAVID INFIELD, Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

LEON FRERIS, Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology (CREST), Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK

Foreword xv

Preface to the First Edition xix

Preface to the Second Edition xxi

Acknowledgements xxiii

About the Companion Website xxv

1 Energy and Electricity 1

1.1 The World Energy Scene 1

1.1.1 History 1

1.1.2 World Energy Consumption 1

1.1.3 Finite Resources 2

1.1.4 Energy Security and Disparity of Use 3

1.2 The Environmental Impact of Energy Use 4

1.2.1 The Problem 4

1.2.2 The Science 5

1.2.3 The Kyoto Protocol 7

1.2.4 Economics of Mitigation 10

1.2.5 Efficient Energy Use 11

1.2.6 The Electricity Sector 14

1.2.7 Possible Solutions and Sustainability 15

1.3 Generating Electricity 16

1.3.1 Conversion from Other Energy Forms – The Importance of Efficiency 16

1.3.2 The Nuclear Path 17

1.3.3 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 17

1.3.4 Renewables 18

1.4 The Electrical Power System 20

1.4.1 Structure of the Electrical Power System 20

1.4.2 Integrating Renewables into Power Systems 23

1.4.3 Distributed Generation 23

1.4.4 Renewable Energy Penetration 24

1.4.5 Network Stability 25

References 25

2 Features of Conventional and Renewable Generation 27

2.1 Introduction 27

2.2 Conventional Sources: Coal, Gas and Nuclear 28

2.3 Hydroelectric Power 29

2.3.1 Large-Scale Hydro 30

2.3.2 Small Hydro 31

2.3.2.1 Turbine Designs 32

2.4 Wind Power 33

2.4.1 The Resource 33

2.4.2 Wind Variability 34

2.4.3 Wind Turbines 37

2.4.4 Power Variability 40

2.4.4.1 Variability from Second to Second 40

2.4.4.2 Variability from Minute to Minute 41

2.4.4.3 Variability from Hour to Hour and from Day-to-Day 41

2.4.4.4 Seasonal Variability 42

2.4.5 Offshore Wind 42

2.5 PV and Solar Thermal Electricity 47

2.5.1 The Resource 47

2.5.2 The Technology 49

2.5.3 Photovoltaic Systems 49

2.5.4 Solar Thermal Electric Systems 52

2.6 Tidal Power 54

2.6.1 The Resource 54

2.6.2 Tidal Enhancement 54

2.6.2.1 Funnelling 54

2.6.2.2 Resonance 55

2.6.2.3 Coriolis Effect 55

2.6.3 Tidal Barrages 55

2.6.4 Operational Strategies 55

2.6.4.1 Power Variability 56

2.6.5 Tidal Current Schemes 57

2.7 Wave Power 59

2.7.1 The Resource 59

2.7.2 The Technology 59

2.7.3 Variability 60

2.8 Biomass 62

2.8.1 The Resource 62

2.8.2 Resource Sustainability 62

2.9 Summary of Power Generation Characteristics 63

2.10 Combining Sources 64

References 65

3 Power Balance/Frequency Control 67

3.1 Introduction 67

3.1.1 The Power Balance Issue 67

3.2 Electricity Demand 68

3.2.1 Demand Curves 68

3.2.2 Load Aggregation 69

3.2.3 Demand-Side Management – Deferrable Loads 70

3.3 Power Governing 71

3.3.1 Power Conversion Chain 71

3.3.2 Governor Steady State Characteristics 72

3.3.3 Parallel Operation of Two Generators 73

3.3.4 A Multi-Generator System 74

3.3.5 The Steady State Power–Frequency Relationship 75

3.4 Dynamic Frequency Control of Large Systems 76

3.4.1 Demand Matching 76

3.4.2 Demand Forecasting 77

3.4.3 Frequency Limits 79

3.4.4 Generation Scheduling and Reserve 79

3.4.5 Frequency Control at Different Timescales 80

3.4.6 Meeting Demand and Ensuring Reliability 82

3.4.7 Capacity Factor and Capacity Credit 83

3.5 Impact of Renewable Generation on Frequency Control and Reliability 84

3.5.1 Introduction 84

3.5.2 Aggregation of Sources 85

3.5.2.1 The Monthly Distribution of Power Availability 85

3.5.2.2 The Daily Distribution of Power Availability 85

3.5.2.3 Short Term Variability 86

3.5.2.4 The Capacity Factor 86

3.5.3 Value of Energy from the Wind 88

3.5.4 Impact on Balancing 88

3.5.5 Impact on Reliability 90

3.5.6 Discarded/Curtailed Energy 91

3.5.7 Overall Penalties Due to Increasing Penetration 92

3.5.8 Combining Different Renewable Sources 92

3.5.9 Differences Between Electricity Systems 93

3.5.10 Limits of Penetration from Non-Dispatchable Sources 94

3.6 Frequency Response Services from Renewables 96

3.6.1.1 Wind Power 96

3.6.1.2 Biofuels 100

3.6.1.3 Waterpower 100

3.6.1.4 Photovoltaics 100

3.7 Frequency Control Modelling 101

3.7.1 Background 101

3.7.1.1 Modelling a Generator 101

3.7.1.2 Modelling Released Demand 102

3.7.1.3 Modelling the Grid’s Inertial Energy Store 102

3.7.2 A Modelling Example 103

3.8 Energy Storage 105

3.8.1 Introduction 105

3.8.2 Storage Devices 106

3.8.3 Dynamic Demand Control 108

References 111

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Renewable Energy in Power Systems

Renewable Energy in Power Systems

1118649931

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