Unlike other gender books, this one focuses equally on both men and women, drawing from the empirical research and conceptual discussions surrounding gender in the areas of psychology, sociology, anthropology, medicine, and public health.It reviews the research from multiple perspectives, but emphasizes the implications of social roles, status, and gender-related traits, particularly for relationships and health-areas that are central to readers' lives and that have a great impact on their day-to-day functioning.

Table of Contents

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Preface		xvii
Acknowledgments		xxi
Introduction		1	(45)
Definition of Terms		3	(6)
Cultural Differences in the Construal of Gender		9	(3)
Cultures with Multiple Genders		9	(1)
Morocco		10	(1)
The Agta Negrito		11	(1)
Tahiti		11	(1)
Status and Culture		11	(1)
The Scientific Method		12	(9)
Correlational Study		15	(2)
Experimental Study		17	(3)
Field Experiment		20	(1)
Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Designs		20	(1)
Difficulties in Conducting Research on Gender		21	(14)
Experimenter Effects		21	(7)
Participant Effects		28	(1)
The Setting: Laboratory Versus Field		29	(1)
Variables Confounded with Sex		30	(4)
Situational Influences		34	(1)
Philosophical and Political Issues Surrounding Gender		35	(6)
The Sex Difference Debate		35	(1)
Should We Study Gender?		36	(1)
Social Construction of Gender		37	(1)
Women's Movements		38	(1)
Men's Movements		39	(2)
This Book's Approach to the Study of Gender		41	(1)
Summary		42	(1)
Discussion Questions		43	(1)
Suggested Reading		44	(1)
Key Terms		44	(2)
Conceptualization and Measurement of Gender Roles and Gender-Role Attitudes		46	(53)
History of the Psychology of Gender		46	(22)
1894--1936: Sex Differences in Intelligence		46	(2)
1936--1954: M/F as a Global Personality Trait		48	(4)
1954--1982: Sex Typing and Androgyny		52	(5)
1982--Present: Gender as a Social Category		57	(11)
Gender-Role Attitudes		68	(27)
Attitudes Toward Men's and Women's Roles		68	(2)
Affective Component: Sexism		70	(5)
Cognitive Component: Gender-Role Stereotyping		75	(17)
Behavioral Component: Sex Discrimination		92	(3)
Summary		95	(1)
Discussion Questions		96	(1)
Suggested Reading		96	(1)
Key Terms		97	(2)
Sex-Related Comparisons: Observations		99	(35)
Maccoby and Jacklin's Psychology of Sex Differences		101	(1)
Meta-Analysis		102	(2)
Sex Comparisons in Cognitive Abilities		104	(12)
Spatial Ability		104	(5)
Mathematical Ability		109	(2)
Verbal Ability		111	(1)
Two Studies in Cognitive Abilities		112	(3)
Conclusions		115	(1)
Sex Comparisons in Social Domains		116	(6)
Empathy		116	(1)
Helping Behavior		117	(1)
Sexuality		118	(3)
Activity		121	(1)
General Personality Attributes		121	(1)
Conclusion		122	(1)
Sex Comparisons in Emotion		122	(6)
The Experience of Emotion		123	(1)
The Expression of Emotion		124	(2)
Physiological Measures of Emotion		126	(1)
Basis of Emotion		127	(1)
Conclusions		128	(1)
Sex Comparisons in Moral Development		128	(2)
Sex Comparisons in Social Development		130	(1)
Summary		131	(1)
Discussion Questions		132	(1)
Suggested Reading		133	(1)
Key Terms		133	(1)
Sex-Related Comparisons: Theory		134	(49)
Biology		135	(6)
Genes		135	(1)
Hormones		136	(3)
The Brain		139	(2)
Summary		141	(1)
Evolutionary Theory and Sociobiology		141	(2)
Sexual Behavior		141	(1)
Mate Selection		142	(1)
The Hunter-Gatherer Society		142	(1)
A Final Note		143	(1)
Psychoanalytic Theory		143	(2)
Social Learning Theory		145	(3)
Reinforcement		145	(1)
Observational Learning or Modeling		145	(3)
Gender-Role Socialization		148	(15)
The Influence of Parents		150	(5)
The Influence of Other People		155	(1)
Other Features of the Environment		156	(7)
Conclusion		163	(1)
Social Role Theory		163	(4)
Cognitive Development Theory		167	(1)
Gender Schema Theory		168	(5)
Considering the Context: Deaux and Major's Model		173	(5)
Perceiver		173	(1)
Target		174	(1)
Situation		175	(3)
Constructionist and Postmodern Perspectives		178	(1)
Summary		179	(2)
Discussion Questions		181	(1)
Suggested Reading		181	(1)
Key Terms		182	(1)
Aggression		183	(40)
Aggression/Violence		184	(5)
Research Evidence		184	(3)
Crime Statistics		187	(2)
Theories of Aggression		189	(8)
Biological Theories		189	(2)
Social Learning Theory		191	(3)
Gender-Role Theories		194	(2)
Cognitive Theories		196	(1)
Environmental Factors		197	(1)
Rape and Other Forms of Sexual Coercion		197	(7)
Definitions		197	(1)
Incidence		198	(2)
Characteristics of Perpetrator		200	(2)
Characteristics of Victim		202	(1)
Theories		202	(2)
Domestic Abuse		204	(7)
Incidence		205	(4)
Characteristics of Perpetrator		209	(1)
Characteristics of Victim		210	(1)
Theories		210	(1)
Sexual Harassment		211	(9)
Definitions		212	(3)
Incidence		215	(3)
Characteristics of Perpetrator		218	(1)
Characteristics of Victim		219	(1)
Theories		219	(1)
Summary		220	(1)
Discussion Questions		221	(1)
Suggested Reading		222	(1)
Key Terms		222	(1)
Achievement		223	(46)
Individual Difference Factors		224	(26)
The Achievement Motive		224	(1)
Fear of Achievement		225	(7)
Self-Confidence		232	(4)
Response to Evaluative Feedback		236	(2)
Self-Esteem		238	(2)
Stereotype Threat		240	(1)
Conceptions of the Self		241	(5)
Attributions for Performance		246	(4)
Social Factors		250	(16)
Expectancy/Value Model of Achievement		250	(2)
The Influence of Parents		252	(4)
The Influence of Teachers		256	(7)
Peers and the Neighborhood		263	(3)
Summary		266	(1)
Discussion Questions		267	(1)
Suggested Reading		268	(1)
Key Terms		268	(1)
Communication		269	(43)
Interaction Styles in Childhood		270	(5)
Children's Styles of Play		271	(1)
Girls' Difficulty in Influencing Boys		272	(1)
Explaining the Different Styles of Play		273	(1)
Summary		274	(1)
Interaction Styles in Adulthood		275	(2)
Language		277	(6)
Qualifiers to Sex Differences		280	(2)
Effects of Language on Perception		282	(1)
Nonverbal Behavior		283	(4)
Smiling		284	(1)
Gazing		284	(1)
Decoding		285	(1)
Sending		285	(1)
Touching		285	(2)
Summary		287	(1)
Influenceability		287	(6)
Who Is Influenced?		287	(3)
Who Is Influential?		290	(2)
Influence Strategies		292	(1)
Explanations for Sex Differences in Communication		293	(7)
Sex-Segregated Interactions in Early Life		293	(1)
Status Theory		294	(5)
Social Role Theory		299	(1)
Leadership		300	(6)
Who Emerges as a Leader		300	(2)
Leadership Styles		302	(1)
Views of Leaders		303	(2)
Summary		305	(1)
Support Provision in Interactions		306	(2)
Summary		308	(2)
Discussion Questions		310	(1)
Suggested Reading		310	(1)
Key Terms		311	(1)
Friendship		312	(36)
Network Size		313	(1)
The Nature of Friendship		314	(3)
Sex Differences		314	(2)
Sex Similarities		316	(1)
Closeness of Friendship		317	(5)
Barriers to Closeness in Male Friendship		322	(1)
Homophobia		322	(1)
Competition		323	(1)
Emotional Inexpressiveness		323	(1)
Self-Disclosure		323	(5)
Sex of Discloser		324	(1)
Sex of Recipient		325	(1)
Situational Variables		325	(2)
Barriers to Male Self-Disclosure		327	(1)
Definition of Intimacy		328	(2)
Conflict in Friendship		330	(3)
Changes Over the Life Span		333	(1)
Early Adulthood: Marriage and Family		333	(1)
Late Adulthood: Retirement and Empty Nest		334	(1)
Cross-Sex Friendship		334	(6)
Comparisons to Same-Sex Friendship		335	(2)
Obstacles		337	(2)
Changes Over the Life Span		339	(1)
Friendship at Work		340	(3)
Friendships of Lesbians and Gay Men		343	(2)
Summary		345	(1)
Discussion Questions		346	(1)
Suggested Reading		346	(1)
Key Terms		347	(1)
Romantic Relationships		348	(52)
Relationship Development		349	(10)
Interest in Relationships		349	(1)
Standards for Relationships		350	(2)
Characteristics Desired in a Mate		352	(6)
Relationship Initiation		358	(1)
The Nature of Romantic Relationships		359	(11)
Intimacy		359	(1)
Love		360	(5)
Sexuality		365	(5)
Maintaining Relationships		370	(7)
Maintenance Strategies		371	(1)
Marital Satisfaction		372	(5)
Conflict		377	(10)
Areas of Conflict		377	(1)
Conflict Management		378	(2)
Demand/Withdraw Pattern		380	(4)
Jealousy		384	(3)
Gay and Lesbian Relationships		387	(6)
Relationship Development		388	(2)
Intimacy and Sexuality		390	(1)
Relationship Satisfaction		391	(1)
Jealousy		392	(1)
Sex Versus Status		392	(1)
Cohabiting Relationships		393	(3)
Who Cohabits		394	(1)
Outcomes of Cohabitation		395	(1)
Summary		396	(2)
Discussion Questions		398	(1)
Suggested Reading		398	(1)
Key Terms		399	(1)
Sex Differences in Health: Evidence and Explanations		400	(50)
Sex Differences in Mortality		400	(5)
Life Span		400	(4)
Leading Causes of Death		404	(1)
Sex Differences in Morbidity		405	(2)
Explanations for Sex Differences in Health		407	(1)
Biology		407	(5)
Genes		407	(1)
Hormones		408	(1)
Immune System		408	(1)
Cardiovascular Reactivity		409	(3)
Socioeconomic Status		412	(1)
Artifacts		412	(6)
Proxy		413	(1)
Physicians Bias		413	(5)
Health Behaviors		418	(18)
Preventive Health Care		419	(1)
Smoking		420	(7)
Alcohol		427	(1)
Drugs		428	(1)
Prediction of Smoking, Alcohol Use, and Drug Use		429	(3)
Overweight and Obesity		432	(2)
Exercise		434	(2)
Men's and Women's Social Roles		436	(5)
Job Characteristics		436	(1)
Driving		437	(1)
Risky Behavior		437	(1)
Concerns with Health		438	(1)
Nurturant Roles		439	(1)
Gender-Related Traits		440	(1)
Symptom Perception		441	(2)
Evidence		441	(1)
Explanations		442	(1)
Illness Behavior		443	(3)
Implications for Morbidity		443	(1)
Implications for Mortality		444	(2)
Conclusions		446	(1)
Summary		446	(2)
Discussion Questions		448	(1)
Suggested Reading		448	(1)
Key Terms		449	(1)
Relationships and Health		450	(45)
Effects of Marriage on Health		451	(7)
Evidence		452	(2)
Explanations		454	(4)
Summary		458	(1)
Effect of Bereavement on Health		458	(4)
Evidence		460	(1)
Explanations		461	(1)
Summary		462	(1)
Effect of Relationship Dissolution on Health		462	(5)
Breakup of Dating Relationships		462	(1)
Breakup of Marriage: Separation and Divorce		463	(1)
Explanations		464	(3)
Summary		467	(1)
Effect of Marital Quality on Health		467	(4)
Evidence		467	(4)
Explanations		471	(1)
Summary		471	(1)
Division of Labor		471	(9)
Who Does What?		471	(4)
What Determines Who Does What?		475	(2)
Satisfaction		477	(2)
Effects on Well-Being		479	(1)
Summary		479	(1)
Parenting and Health		480	(5)
Effects of Parental Status on Health		481	(2)
Effect of Quality of Parent Role on Health		483	(1)
Effect of Parenthood on Marriage		484	(1)
Summary		485	(1)
Effect of Social Support on Health		485	(6)
Sex Comparisons		485	(3)
Evidence: Relations to Health		488	(3)
Summary		491	(2)
Discussion Questions		493	(1)
Suggested Reading		493	(1)
Key Terms		494	(1)
Work Roles and Health		495	(40)
Work Role		496	(10)
Women's Employment		497	(6)
Unemployment		503	(1)
Retirement		504	(1)
Summary		505	(1)
Quality of Work Role		506	(3)
Characteristics of Work		507	(1)
Effects on Health		508	(1)
Discrimination		509	(12)
Pay Disparity		510	(9)
Denial of Discrimination		519	(2)
Summary		521	(1)
The Multiple Roles Question		521	(6)
Differential Exposure vs. Differential Vulnerability		524	(1)
Difficulties in Combining Roles		525	(2)
Summary		527	(1)
Role Buffering and Role Exacerbation		527	(4)
Does Work Role Buffer or Exacerbate Family Stress?		527	(2)
Do Family Roles Buffer or Exacerbate Work Stress?		529	(2)
Summary		531	(1)
Discussion Questions		532	(1)
Suggested Reading		532	(1)
Key Terms		533	(2)
Mental Health		535	(53)
Sex Differences in Depression		535	(5)
Methodological Artifacts		540	(3)
Clinician Bias		540	(1)
Response Bias		541	(1)
Different Manifestations of Depression		542	(1)
Theories of Depression		543	(19)
Biology		544	(2)
Learned Helplessness		546	(1)
Attributional Styles		547	(1)
Coping		548	(7)
Stressful Life Events		555	(4)
The Female Gender Role		559	(3)
Challenges of Adolescence		562	(4)
Adjustment to Chronic Illness		566	(6)
Male Gender Role		569	(2)
Female Gender Role		571	(1)
Eating Disorders		572	(7)
Definitions and Prevalence		572	(1)
Consequences		573	(2)
Etiology		575	(4)
Suicide		579	(5)
Incidence		579	(2)
Attempts		581	(1)
The Gender Paradox		581	(1)
Factors Associated with Suicide Among Adults		582	(1)
Factors Associated with Suicide Among Adolescents		583	(1)
Summary		584	(2)
Discussion Questions		586	(1)
Suggested Reading		586	(1)
Key Terms		587	(1)
References		588	(65)
Author Index		653	(14)
Subject Index		667

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Excerpts

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The purpose of this text is to provide a review of the empirical research and conceptual discussions surrounding gender and to examine the implications of gender for relationships and health. The focus of this book goes beyond sex alone--whether one is biologically male or female--to explore the roles that society has assigned to men and women and the other variables that co-occur with sex, such as status and gender-related traits. The implications of social roles, status, and gender-related traits for relationships and health are examined. This is why the book is titledThe Psychology of Genderrather thanThe Psychology of Sex.Gender is a term that represents the social and cultural forces that influence men and women in our society. The book discusses the "psychology" of gender because the focus is on the individual in the social context. The primary focus is not on biology and anthropology, although their contributions to the study of gender are included. Rather than review every single topic related to gender, I examine the implications of gender for two broad domains of research: relationships and health. These domains are chosen, first, because they are central to our lives. Friendships, romantic relationships, and relationships at work have a great impact on our day-to-day functioning. Psychological wellbeing and physical health are important outcomes in their own right. A second reason for the focus on relationships and health is that these are domains in which clear sex differences have been documented. These sex differences cannot be attributed to biology alone; thus, relationships and health are domains for which gender, the social category, may play a role. The book is divided into three sections, with each section building on the previous one. First, the nature of gender and the development of gender roles is presented. In the first chapter, I provide a brief overview of the scientific method and discuss the difficulties in conducting research on gender, including the philosophical and political issues that pervade this arena. I then provide a brief history of the psychology of gender, which includes discussions of the various instruments used to study gender (Chapter 2). I also discuss our attitudes toward gender and gender roles, as well as gender-role stereotypes (Chapter 2). I then turn to the research literature to provide the current data (Chapter 3) and theory (Chapter 4) on sex differences in cognitive, emotional, and social domains. In Chapter 4, I also discuss different theories of gender-role development, such as evolutionary theory, social learning theory, social role theory, and gender schema theory. In Chapter 5, I discuss the implications of gender and gender roles for aggression, including rape, domestic violence, and sexual harassment. In Chapter 6,.I discuss the implications of gender and gender roles for achievement. Thus, in this first section of the book, I provide important information on the similarities and differences between men and women and the theories that explain any observed differences. The data and the theories are important for understanding the subsequent sections of the book that address the implications of gender for relationships and health. The second section of the book begins with a discussion of men's and women's communication and interaction styles (Chapter 7). These findings have implications for the specific relationships discussed: friendship (Chapter 8) and romantic relationships (Chapter 9). Recent research on cross-sex friendship and gay and lesbian relationships are included in these chapters. The role of gender in relationships is critical to understanding the third section of the book, how gender influences health. The third section begins with an overview chapter documenting sex differences in mental and physical health and theories as to their origins (Chapter 10). Health is broadly construed in this book