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Principles of Development

by: Wolpert, Lewis; Smith, Jim; Jessell, Tom; Lawrence, Peter; Robertson, Elizabeth; Meyerowitz, Elliot

Principles of Development

by: Wolpert, Lewis; Smith, Jim; Jessell, Tom; Lawrence, Peter; Robertson, Elizabeth; Meyerowitz, Elliot

ISBN 13:
9780199275373
ISBN 10:
0199275378
Edition: 3rd
Format: Hardcover
Copyright: 08/09/2006
Publisher: Oxford University Press
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Summary

Completely updated and revised in a new edition, Principles of Development presents major principles and concepts in the field for an undergraduate audience. Emphasizing gene control as the key to understanding development, the third edition is written in accessible prose, utilizing an impressive art program - 650 full color figures - as well as summaries and diagrams throughout the text to illuminate conceptually challenging material. In addition, the third edition presents carefully selected articles for further reading that expound on principles covered in the text.

History and basic concepts

The origins of developmental biology

(10)

Aristotle first defined the problem of epigenesis and preformation

(1)

Box 1A Basic stages of Xenopus laevis development

(1)

Cell theory changed the conception of embryonic development and heredity

(1)

Two main types of development were originally proposed

(1)

The discovery of induction showed that one group of cells could determine the development of neighboring cells

(1)

The study of development was stimulated by the coming together of genetics and development

(1)

Development is studied mainly through a selection of model organisms

(2)

The first developmental genes were identified as spontaneous mutations

(2)

A conceptual tool kit

(19)

Development involves cell division, the emergence of pattern, change in form, cell differentiation, and growth

(2)

Box 1B Germ layers

(1)

Cell behavior provides the link between gene action and developmental processes

(1)

Genes control cell behavior by specifying which proteins are made

(1)

The expression of developmental genes is under the control of complex control regions

(1)

Development is progressive and the fate of cells becomes determined at different times

(3)

Inductive interactions can make cells different from each other

(1)

The response to inductive signals depends on the state of the cell

(1)

Patterning can involve the interpretation of positional information

(2)

Lateral inhibition can generate spacing patterns

(1)

Localization of cytoplasmic determinants and asymmetric cell division can make cells different from each other

(1)

The embryo contains a generative rather than a descriptive program

(1)

The reliability of development is achieved by a variety of means

(1)

The complexity of embryonic development is due to the complexity of cells themselves

(5)

Development of the Drosophila body plan

Drosophila life cycle and overall development

(5)

The early Drosophila embryo is a multinucleate syncytium

(1)

Cellularization is followed by gastrulation, segmentation, and the formation of the larval nervous system

(1)

After hatching the Drosophila larva develops through several larval stages, pupates, and then undergoes morphogenesis to become an adult

(1)

Many developmental mutations have been identified in Drosophila through induced mutation and large-scale genetic screening

(1)

Box 2A Mutagenesis and genetic screening strategy for identifying developmental mutants in Drosophila

(1)

Setting up the body axes

(10)

The body axes are set up while the Drosophila embryo is still a syncytium

(1)

Maternal factors set up the body axes and direct the early stage of Drosophila development

(2)

Three classes of maternal genes specify the antero-posterior axis

(1)

The bicoid gene provides an antero-posterior gradient of morphogen

(1)

The posterior pattern is controlled by the gradients of Nanos and Caudal proteins

(1)

The anterior and posterior extremities of the embryo are specified by cell-surface receptor activation

(1)

The dorso-ventral polarity of the embryo is specified by localization of maternal proteins in the egg vitelline envelope

(1)

Positional information along the dorso-ventral axis is provided by the Dorsal protein

(1)

Box 2B The Toll signaling pathway: a multifunctional pathway

(1)

Localization of maternal determinants during oogenesis

(5)

The antero-posterior axis of the Drosophila egg is specified by signals from the preceding egg chamber and by interactions of the oocyte with follicle cells

(3)

The dorso-ventral axis of the egg is specified by movement of the oocyte nucleus followed by signaling between oocyte and follicle cells

(1)

Patterning the early embryo

(9)

The expression of zygotic genes along the dorso-ventral axis is controlled by Dorsal protein

(3)

The Decapentaplegic protein acts as a morphogen to pattern the dorsal region

(2)

The antero-posterior axis is divided up into broad regions by gap-gene expression

(1)

Bicoid protein provides a positional signal for the anterior expression of hunchback

(1)

The gradient in Hunchback protein activates and represses other gap genes

(1)

Box 2C P-element-mediated transformation

(2)

Activation of the pair-rule genes and the establishment of parasegments

(4)

Parasegments are delimited by expression of pair-rule genes in a periodic pattern

(1)

Gap-gene activity positions stripes of pair-rule gene expression

(3)

Segmentation genes and compartments

(13)

Expression of the engrailed gene delimits a cell-lineage boundary and defines a compartment

(3)

Box 2D Genetic mosaics and mitotic recombination

(2)

Segmentation genes stabilize parasegment boundaries and set up a focus of signaling at the boundary that patterns the segment

(3)

Insect epidermal cells become individually polarized in an antero-posterior direction in the plane of the epithelium

(2)

Box 2E Planar cell polarity

(1)

Some insects use different mechanisms for patterning the body plan

(2)

Specification of segment identity

(12)

Segment identity in Drosophila is specified by genes of the Antennapedia and bithorax complexes

(1)

Homeotic selector genes of the bithorax complex are responsible for diversification of the posterior segments

(1)

The Antennapedia complex controls specification of anterior regions

(1)

The order of Hox gene expression corresponds to the order of genes along the chromosome

(1)

The Drosophila head region is specified by genes other than the Hox genes

(1)

Box 2F Targeted gene expression and misexpression screening

(8)

Patterning the vertebrate body plan I: axes and germ layers

Vertebrate life cycles and outlines of development

(18)

The frog Xenopus laevis is the model amphibian for developmental studies

(1)

Box 3A Polar bodies

(3)

The zebrafish embryo develops around a large, undivided yolk

(2)

The early chicken embryo develops as a flat disc of cells overlying a massive yolk

(1)

Box 3B Large-scale mutagenesis in zebrafish

(5)

Early development in the mouse involves the allocation of cells to form the placenta and extra-embryonic membranes

104

(4)

Setting up the body axes

108

(17)

The animal-vegetal axis is maternally determined in Xenopus and zebrafish

109

(1)

Localized stabilization of the transcriptional regulator β-catenin specifies the future dorsal side and the location of the main embryonic organizer in Xenopus and zebrafish

110

(1)

Box 3C Intercellular signals in development

111

(1)

Box 3D In situ detection of gene expression

112

(3)

Signaling centers develop on the dorsal side of Xenopus and zebrafish

115

(2)

The antero-posterior and dorso-ventral axes of the chick blastoderm are related to the primitive streak

117

(2)

The axes of the mouse embryo are not recognizable early in development

119

(2)

The bilateral symmetry of the early embryo is broken to produce left-right asymmetry of internal organs

121

(4)

The origin and specification of the germ layers

125

(26)

A fate map of the amphibian blastula is constructed by following the fate of labeled cells

125

(2)

The fate maps of vertebrates are variations on a basic plan

127

(1)

Cells of early vertebrate embryos do not yet have their fates determined and regulation is possible

128

(2)

Box 3E Producing developmental mutations in mice

130

(1)

In Xenopus the endoderm and ectoderm are specified by maternal factors, but the mesoderm is induced from ectoderm by signals from the vegetal region

130

(2)

Mesoderm induction occurs during a limited period in the blastula stage

132

(1)

Zygotic gene expression is turned on at the mid-blastula transition

133

(1)

Mesoderm-inducing and patterning signals are produced by the vegetal region, the organizer, and the ventral mesoderm

134

(2)

Members of the TGF-β family have been identified as mesoderm inducers

136

(1)

The dorso-ventral patterning of the mesoderm involves the antagonistic actions of dorsalizing and ventralizing factors

137

(2)

Mesoderm induction and patterning in the chick and mouse occurs during primitive-streak formation

139

(1)

Gradients in signaling proteins and threshold responses could pattern the mesoderm

140

(11)

Patterning the vertebrate body plan II: the somites and early nervous system

Somite formation and antero-posterior patterning

151

(15)

Somites are formed in a well defined order along the antero-posterior axis

151

(4)

Identity of somites along the antero-posterior axis is specified by Hox gene expression

155

(1)

Box 4A The Hox genes

156

(2)

Box 4B Gene targeting: insertional mutagenesis and gene knock-out

158

(4)

Deletion or overexpression of Hox genes causes changes in axial patterning

162

(1)

Hox gene activation is related to a timing mechanism

163

(1)

The fate of somite cells is determined by signals from the adjacent tissues

164

(2)

The role of the organizer and neural induction

166

(20)

The inductive capacity of the organizer changes during gastrulation

167

(2)

The neural plate is induced in the ectoderm

169

(4)

The nervous system can be patterned by signals from the mesoderm

173

(2)

There is an organizer at the midbrain-hindbrain boundary

175

(1)

The hindbrain is segmented into rhombomeres by boundaries of cell-lineage restriction

175

(2)

Neural crest cells arise from the borders of the neural plate

177

(1)

Hox genes provide positional information in the developing hindbrain

178

(1)

The embryo is patterned by the neurula stage into organ-forming regions that can still regulate

179

(7)

Development of nematodes, sea urchins, ascidians, and slime molds

Nematodes

186

(16)

Box 5A Gene silencing by RNA interference

189

(1)

The antero-posterior axis in C. elegans is determined by asymmetric cell division

190

(1)

The dorso-ventral axis in C. elegans is determined by cell-cell interactions

191

(2)

Both asymmetric divisions and cell-cell interactions specify cell fate in the early nematode embryo

193

(2)

A small cluster of Hox genes specifies cell fate along the antero-posterior axis

195

(1)

The timing of events in nematode development is under genetic control that involves microRNAs

196

(1)

Box 5B Gene silencing by microRNAs

197

(2)

Vulval development is initiated by the induction of a small number of cells by short-range signals from a single inducing cell

199

(3)

Echinoderms

202

(10)

The sea urchin embryo develops into a free-swimming larva

202

(1)

The sea urchin egg is polarized along the animal-vegetal axis

203

(2)

The oral-aboral axis in sea urchins is related to the plane of the first cleavage

205

(1)

The sea urchin fate map is finely specified, yet considerable regulation is possible

206

(1)

The vegetal region of the sea urchin embryo acts as an organizer

207

(1)

The sea urchin vegetal region is specified by nuclear accumulation of β-catenin

208

(2)

The genetic control of endomesoderm specification is known in considerable detail

210

(2)

Ascidians

212

(5)

In ascidians, muscle is specified by localized cytoplasmic factors

214

(1)

Mesenchyme and notochord development in ascidians require signals from the endoderm

215

(2)

Cellular slime molds

217

(11)

Patterning of the slime mold slug involves cell sorting and positional signaling

218

(1)

Chemical signals direct cell differentiation in the slime mold

219

(7)

Plant development

The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana has a short life cycle and a small diploid genome

226

(2)

Embryonic development

228

(6)

Plant embryos develop through several distinct stages

228

(1)

Box 6A Angiosperm embryogenesis

229

(2)

Gradients of the signal molecule auxin establish the embryonic apical-basal axis

231

(1)

Plant somatic cells can give rise to embryos and seedlings

232

(2)

Box 6B Transgenic plants

234

(1)

Meristems

234

(12)

A meristem contains a small central zone of self-renewing stem cells

235

(1)

The size of the stem-cell area in the meristem is kept constant by a feedback loop to the organizing center

236

(1)

The fate of cells from different meristem layers can be changed by changing their position

237

(1)

A fate map for the embryonic shoot meristem can be deduced using clonal analysis

238

(2)

Meristem development is dependent on signals from other parts of the plant

240

(1)

Gene activity patterns the proximo-distal and adaxial-abaxial axes of leaves developing from the shoot meristem

240

(2)

The regular arrangement of leaves on a stem and trichomes on leaves is generated by competition and lateral inhibition

242

(1)

Root tissues are produced from Arabidopsis root apical meristems by a highly stereotyped pattern of cell divisions

243

(3)

Flower development and control of flowering

246

(12)

Homeotic genes control organ identity in the flower

246

(3)

Box 6C The basic model for the patterning of the Arabidopsis flower

249

(1)

The Antirrhinum flower is patterned dorso-ventrally as well as radially

250

(1)

The internal meristem layer can specify floral meristem patterning

251

(1)

The transition of a shoot meristem to a floral meristem is under environmental and genetic control

251

(7)

Morphogenesis: change in form in the early embryo

Cell adhesion

258

(4)

Box 7A Cell-adhesion molecules and cell junctions

259

(1)

Sorting out of dissociated cells demonstrates differences in cell adhesiveness in different tissues

260

(1)

Cadherins can provide adhesive specificity

261

(1)

Cleavage and formation of the blastula

262

(7)

The asters of the mitotic apparatus determine the plane of cleavage at cell division

263

(1)

Cells become polarized in early mouse and sea urchin blastulas

264

(2)

Ion transport is involved in fluid accumulation in the frog blastocoel

266

(1)

Internal cavities can be created by cell death

267

(2)

Gastrulation movements

269

(14)

Gastrulation in the sea urchin involves cell migration and invagination

269

(1)

Box 7B Change in cell shape and cell movement

270

(3)

Mesoderm invagination in Drosophila is due to changes in cell shape that are controlled by genes that pattern the dorso-ventral axis

273

(2)

Germ-band extension in Drosophila involves myosin-dependent intercalation

275

(1)

Dorsal closure in Drosophila and ventral closure in C. elegans are brought about by the action of filopodia

276

(1)

Vertebrate gastrulation involves several different types of tissue movement

276

(4)

Convergent extension and epiboly are due to different types of cell intercalation

280

(3)

Neural-tube formation

283

(3)

Neural-tube formation is driven by changes in cell shape and cell migration

284

(2)

Cell migration

286

(4)

Neural crest migration is controlled by environmental cues and adhesive differences

286

(2)

Slime mold aggregation involves chemotaxis and signal propagation

288

(2)

Directed dilation

290

(11)

Later extension and stiffening of the notochord occurs by directed dilation

290

(1)

Circumferential contraction of hypodermal cells elongates the nematode embryo

291

(1)

The direction of cell enlargement can determine the form of a plant leaf

292

(7)

Cell differentiation and stem cells

Box 8A DNA microarrays for studying gene expression

299

(2)

The control of gene expression

301

(8)

Control of transcription involves both general and tissue-specific transcriptional regulators

301

(2)

External signals can activate genes

303

(2)

Maintenance and inheritance of patterns of gene activity may depend on chemical and structural modifications to chromatin as well as on regulatory proteins

305

(4)

Models of cell differentiation

309

(18)

All blood cells are derived from multipotent stem cells

310

(2)

Colony-stimulating factors and intrinsic changes control differentiation of the hematopoietic lineages

312

(2)

Developmentally regulated globin gene expression is controlled by regulatory sequences far distant from the coding regions

314

(2)

Differentiation of cells that make antibodies involves irreversible DNA rearrangement

316

(2)

The epithelia of adult mammalian skin and gut are continually replaced by derivatives of stem cells

318

(1)

A family of genes can activate muscle-specific transcription

319

(1)

The differentiation of muscle cells involves withdrawal from the cell cycle, but is reversible

320

(1)

Skeletal muscle and neural cells can be renewed from stem cells in adults

321

(1)

Embryonic neural crest cells differentiate into a great variety of different cell types

322

(2)

Programmed cell death is under genetic control

324

(3)

The plasticity of gene expression

327

(13)

Nuclei of differentiated cells can support development

327

(2)

Patterns of gene activity in differentiated cells can be changed by cell fusion

329

(1)

The differentiated state of a cell can change by transdifferentiation

330

(2)

Embryonic stem cells can proliferate and differentiate into many cell types in culture

332

(1)

Stem cells could be a key to regenerative medicine

332

(8)

Organogenesis

The vertebrate limb

340

(18)

The vertebrate limb develops from a limb bud

340

(1)

Patterning of the limb involves positional information

341

(1)

Genes expressed in the lateral plate mesoderm are involved in specifying the position and type of limb

341

(2)

The apical ectodermal ridge is required for limb outgrowth

343

(2)

The polarizing region specifies position along the limb's antero-posterior axis

345

(2)

Box 9A Positional information and morphogen gradients

347

(2)

Position along the proximo-distal axis may be specified by a timing mechanism

349

(1)

The dorso-ventral axis is controlled by the ectoderm

350

(1)

Different interpretations of the same positional signals give different limbs

351

(1)

Homeobox genes also provide positional values for limb patterning

351

(2)

Self-organization may be involved in the development of the limb bud

353

(1)

Limb muscle is patterned by the connective tissue

354

(1)

Box 9B Reaction-diffusion mechanisms

355

(1)

The initial development of cartilage, muscles, and tendons is autonomous

356

(1)

Joint formation involves secreted signals and mechanical stimuli

357

(1)

Separation of the digits is the result of programmed cell death

357

(1)

Insect wings, legs, and eyes

358

(13)

Positional signals from the antero-posterior and dorso-ventral compartment boundaries pattern the wing imaginal disc

359

(4)

Drosophila wing epidermal cells show planar cell polarity

363

(1)

The leg disc is patterned in a similar manner to the wing disc, except for the proximo-distal axis

363

(1)

Butterfly wing markings are organized by additional positional fields

364

(2)

The segmental identity of imaginal discs is determined by the homeotic selector genes

366

(1)

Patterning of the Drosophila eye involves cell-cell interactions

367

(2)

Activation of the gene eyeless can initiate eye development

369

(2)

Internal organs: blood vessels, lungs, kidneys, heart, and teeth

371

(17)

The vascular system develops by vasculogenesis followed by angiogenesis

372

(2)

The tracheae of Drosophila and the lungs of vertebrates branch using similar mechanisms

374

(1)

The development of kidney tubules involves reciprocal induction by the ureteric bud and surrounding mesenchyme

375

(2)

The development of the vertebrate heart involves specification of a mesodermal tube that is patterned along its long axis

377

(2)

A homeobox gene code specifies tooth identity

379

(9)

Development of the nervous system

Specification of cell identity in the nervous system

388

(13)

Neurons in Drosophila arise from proneural clusters

388

(2)

Asymmetric cell divisions and timed changes in gene expression are involved in the development of the Drosophila nervous system

390

(2)

The neuroblasts of the sensory organs of adult Drosophila are already specified in the imaginal discs

392

(1)

The vertebrate nervous system is derived from the neural plate

392

(1)

Specification of vertebrate neuronal precursors involves lateral inhibition

393

(1)

Neurons are formed in the proliferative zone of the neural tube and migrate outwards

394

(2)

The pattern of differentiation of cells along the dorso-ventral axis of the spinal cord depends on ventral and dorsal signals

396

(5)

Neuronal migration

401

(8)

The growth cone controls the path taken by the growing axon

402

(1)

Motor neurons from the spinal cord make muscle-specific connections

403

(2)

Axons crossing the midline are both attracted and repelled

405

(1)

Neurons from the retina make ordered connections on the tectum to form a retino-tectal map

406

(3)

Synapse formation and refinement

409

(13)

Synapse formation involves reciprocal interactions

411

(1)

Many motor neurons die during normal development

412

(1)

Neuronal cell death and survival involve both intrinsic and extrinsic factors

413

(1)

The map from eye to brain is refined by neural activity

414

(8)

Germ cells, fertilization, and sex

The development of germ cells

422

(10)

Germ-cell fate can be specified by a distinct germplasm in the egg

422

(3)

Pole plasm becomes localized at the posterior end of the Drosophila egg

425

(1)

Germ cells migrate from their site of origin to the gonad

425

(1)

Germ-cell differentiation involves a reduction in chromosome number

426

(1)

Oocyte development can involve gene amplification and contributions from other cells

427

(1)

Some genes controlling embryonic growth are imprinted

427

(5)

Fertilization

432

(5)

Fertilization involves cell-surface interactions between egg and sperm

432

(2)

Changes in the egg membrane at fertilization block polyspermy

434

(1)

A calcium wave initiated at fertilization results in egg activation

435

(2)

Determination of the sexual phenotype

437

(14)

The primary sex-determining gene in mammals is on the Y chromosome

437

(1)

Mammalian sexual phenotype is regulated by gonadal hormones

438

(1)

The primary sex-determining signal in Drosophila is the number of X chromosomes, and is cell autonomous

439

(2)

Somatic sexual development in Caenorhabditis is determined by the number of X chromosomes

441

(1)

Most flowering plants are hermaphrodites, but some produce unisexual flowers

442

(1)

Germ-cell sex determination can depend both on cell signals and genetic constitution

443

(1)

Various strategies are used for dosage compensation of X-linked genes

444

(7)

Growth and post-embryonic development

Growth

451

(14)

Tissues can grow by cell proliferation, cell enlargement, or accretion

452

(1)

Cell proliferation can be controlled by an intrinsic program

452

(2)

Organ size can be controlled by external signals and intrinsic growth programs

454

(1)

Organ size may be determined by absolute dimension rather than cell number

455

(2)

Growth can be dependent on growth hormones

457

(1)

Growth of the long bones occurs in the growth plates

458

(2)

Growth of vertebrate striated muscle is dependent on tension

460

(1)

Cancer can result from mutations in genes that control cell multiplication and differentiation

461

(2)

Hormones control many features of plant growth

463

(2)

Molting and metamorphosis

465

(4)

Arthropods have to molt in order to grow

465

(1)

Metamorphosis is under environmental and hormonal control

466

(3)

Aging and senescence

469

(7)

Genes can alter the timing of senescence

470

(1)

Cultured mammalian cells undergo cell senescence

471

(5)

Regeneration

Limb and organ regeneration

476

(12)

Vertebrate limb regeneration involves cell dedifferentiation and growth

477

(3)

The limb blastema gives rise to structures with positional values distal to the site of amputation

480

(2)

Retinoic acid can change proximo-distal positional values in regenerating limbs

482

(1)

Insect limbs intercalate positional values by both proximo-distal and circumferential growth

483

(3)

Heart regeneration in the zebrafish does not involve dedifferentiation

486

(1)

The mammalian peripheral nervous system can regenerate

486

(2)

Regeneration in Hydra

488

(13)

Hydra grows continuously but regeneration does not require growth

488

(1)

The head region of Hydra acts both as an organizing region and as an inhibitor of inappropriate head formation

489

(1)

Head regeneration in Hydra can be accounted for in terms of two gradients

490

(2)

Genes controlling regeneration in Hydra are similar to those expressed in animal embryos

492

(8)

Evolution and development

The evolution of life histories has implications for development

500

(1)

The evolutionary modification of embryonic development

501

(16)

Embryonic structures have acquired new functions during evolution

502

(2)

Limbs evolved from fins

504

(4)

Vertebrate and insect wings make use of evolutionarily conserved developmental mechanisms

508

(1)

Hox gene complexes have evolved through gene duplication

508

(2)

Changes in Hox genes have generated the elaboration of vertebrate and arthropod body plans

510

(3)

The position and number of paired appendages in insects is dependent on Hox gene expression

513

(1)

The basic body plan of arthropods and vertebrates is similar, but the dorso-ventral axis is inverted

514

(2)

Evolution of spatial pattern may be based on just a few genes

516

(1)

Changes in the timing of developmental processes

517

(3)

Changes in growth can alter the shapes of organisms

517

(1)

The timing of developmental events has changed during evolution

517

(3)

The evolution of development

520

(1)

How multicellular organisms evolved from single-celled ancestors is still highly speculative

520

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Principles of Development

Principles of Development

9780199275373

0199275378

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Amazon no longer offers textbook rentals. We do!

Principles of Development

Principles of Development

9780199275373

0199275378

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

Write a Review

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