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A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

by: Sommer, Robert; Sommer, Barbara

A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

by: Sommer, Robert; Sommer, Barbara

ISBN 13:
9780195142099
ISBN 10:
0195142098
Edition: 5th
Format: Paperback
Copyright: 08/16/2001
Publisher: Oxford University Press

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Summary

The fifth edition of this popular research methods book emphasizes a hands-on, multimethod, interdisciplinary approach to behavioral research. In this book, research is seen not as a remote activity of a white-coat priesthood, but as an approach that can be used by people in many fields tosolve immediate problems and increase understanding of human behavior. Numerous examples from different nations are provided throughout.

Boxes

xvii

Preface

xix

Multimethod Approach

(12)

What Is Behavioral Research?

(1)

Theory and Research?

(1)

Validity and Reliability

(1)

Why Do Behavioral Research?

(1)

Specific Methods

(1)

Multimethod Approach

(3)

Knowledge Is Connected

(1)

Dealing with Reactivity

(1)

Pilot Study

(1)

Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Research

(1)

General Laws and Local Conditions

(1)

Practical Experience

(1)

Summary

(2)

Ethics in Behavioral Research

(17)

Protecting the Welfare of Research Participants

(4)

Outside Review

(1)

Confidentiality and Anonymity

(1)

Deception

(1)

Comment on Participant Risk

(1)

Issues of Scientific Misconduct

(2)

Psychologists' Code of Ethics

(5)

Anthropologists' and Sociologists' Code of Ethics

(1)

Local Procedures

(1)

Summary

(3)

Search the Technical Literature

(17)

Using a College Library

(1)

Source Credibility

(4)

Scientific Journal Articles

(1)

Books of Readings

(1)

Books

(1)

Mass Media

(1)

Internet

(1)

What to Look for in a Research Article

(1)

Finding References

(2)

How Far to Search?

(1)

Meta-Analysis

(1)

Searching the World Wide Web

(4)

Electronic Newsletters, Journals, Abstracts, and Reports

(1)

What to Save from the Search

(1)

Getting Your Hands on the Materials

(1)

Interlibrary Loan

(1)

Additional Resources

(1)

Citation Search

(1)

Direct Consultation

(1)

Summary

(2)

Observation

(16)

Casual Observation

(2)

Systematic Observation

(4)

How to Be a Good Observer

(3)

Reliability in Systematic Observation

(1)

Video Recording

(1)

Qualitative Approaches

(5)

Participant Observation

(1)

Ethnography

(1)

Doing Qualitative Observation

(1)

Stresses on the Observer

(1)

Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research

(1)

Equipment

(1)

Limitations

(1)

Summary

(2)

Mapping and Trace Measures

(19)

Mapping

(12)

Behavioral Maps

(1)

Place-centered Maps

(3)

Individual-centered Map

(5)

Limitations

(1)

Cognitive Maps

(1)

Limitations

(1)

Trace Measures

(4)

Limitations

(1)

Summary

(3)

Experimentation

(21)

The Special Nature of the Experiment

(2)

Variables

(1)

Independent and Dependent Variables

(1)

Variables in Experiments

(1)

Generating Hypotheses

(2)

Operational Definitions

(1)

Example: Dressing for Success

(1)

Experimental Control

(5)

Eliminating or Holding Extraneous Variables Constant

(1)

Subjects

(1)

Experimenter

(1)

Setting

(1)

Apparatus

(1)

Procedure

(1)

Measurement of Extraneous Variables

(1)

Using a Control Group

(1)

Using Subjects as Their Own Controls

(1)

Limitations of Repeated Measures Designs

(1)

Doing an Experiment

(1)

Getting Ideas

(1)

Designing and Running an Experiment

(1)

Types of Experiments

(5)

True Experiments

(1)

Quasi-experiments

(2)

Single-subject Experiments

(1)

Equipment

(1)

Using the Internet

(2)

Limitations

101

(1)

Summary

101

(2)

Simulation

103

(8)

What Is a Simulation?

104

(1)

Environmental Simulations

104

(1)

Games

105

(2)

Role-playing Exercises

107

(1)

General Comments

108

(1)

Limitations

108

(1)

Summary

109

(2)

Interview

111

(24)

Uses and Types of Interviews

113

(3)

Unstructured Interviews

114

(1)

Structured Interviews

115

(1)

Semistructured Interviews

115

(1)

Telephone Interviews

116

(1)

How to Interview

116

(12)

Deciding What to Ask

117

(2)

Obtaining Permission

119

(1)

Street Corner Interviews

120

(1)

Setting the Stage

121

(1)

Nonverbal Aspects

122

(1)

Pacing and Timing

123

(1)

Probes

124

(1)

Recording the Information

124

(2)

Minimizing Sources of Error

126

(1)

Tact and Diplomacy

127

(1)

Ending the Interview

127

(1)

Analyzing the Results

128

(1)

Coding

128

(1)

Reporting Interview Results

129

(1)

Limitations

129

(2)

Focus Groups

131

(1)

Strengths and Limitations

132

(1)

Summary

132

(3)

The Questionnaire

135

(24)

Questionnaire Construction

136

(8)

Content

136

(1)

Format

137

(1)

Open-ended and Closed Questions

137

(1)

Ranking versus Rating

138

(1)

Matrix Questions

139

(1)

Measuring the Middle Position

140

(1)

Combining Question Types

140

(1)

Number of Questions

141

(1)

Wording Your Questions

141

(1)

Balance

142

(1)

Layout

143

(1)

Introductory Statement

143

(1)

Question Order

143

(1)

Answer Format

144

(1)

Closing Statement

144

(1)

Pretesting

144

(2)

Reproducing the Questionnaire

146

(1)

Distributing the Forms

146

(1)

Group Meetings

147

(1)

Individual Distribution

147

(1)

Mail Surveys

147

(4)

Cover Letter

148

(1)

Increasing Return Rates

149

(2)

Scoring

151

(1)

Interpretation

152

(2)

Describing Survey Results

154

(1)

Comparison of Interviews and Self-administered Questionnaires

155

(1)

Internet Surveys

155

(1)

Limitations

156

(1)

Summary

157

(2)

Attitude and Rating Scales

159

(18)

What Is a Scale?

159

(1)

Rating Scales

160

(1)

Limitations

160

(1)

Levels of Measurement

160

(2)

Attitude Scales

162

(3)

Likert-type Scale

162

(1)

Construction

162

(1)

Initial Administration and Scoring

163

(1)

Selecting the Final Items

163

(1)

Validity and Reliability

164

(1)

Limitations

165

(1)

Semantic Differential

165

(4)

Selection of Terms

166

(1)

Length and Layout

167

(1)

Scoring

168

(1)

Limitations

169

(1)

Performance Rating Scales

169

(1)

Limitations

170

(1)

Consumer Rating Scales

170

(2)

Limitations

172

(1)

Sensory Evaluation

172

(2)

Limitations

174

(1)

Summary

174

(3)

Content Analysis

177

(11)

Quantification in Content Analysis

177

(1)

Uses

178

(2)

Finding Categories

180

(3)

Sampling

183

(1)

Sampling Print Media

183

(1)

Sampling Other Media

184

(1)

Analyzing Recorded Data

184

(1)

Reliability

185

(1)

Limitations

185

(1)

Summary

186

(2)

Personal Documents and Archival Measures

188

(14)

Personal Documents

188

(6)

Research Diaries

189

(1)

Activity Log

190

(1)

Personal Diaries and Journals

191

(2)

Letters

193

(1)

Artwork

193

(1)

Limitations

194

(1)

Life Histories

194

(3)

Autobiography

194

(1)

Biography

195

(1)

General Comments

196

(1)

Limitations

196

(1)

Archival Measures

197

(3)

Uses

197

(1)

Finding Data

198

(1)

Underreporting and Bias

199

(1)

Limitations

200

(1)

Summary

200

(2)

Case Study

202

(9)

Advantages of a Case Study

203

(1)

Choosing a Topic

204

(1)

Unusual Individuals

205

(1)

Obtaining Cooperation

206

(1)

Cross-verification

207

(2)

Observation

208

(1)

Trace Measures and Physical Artifacts

208

(1)

Public and Private Records

209

(1)

Limitations

209

(1)

Summary

209

(2)

Action Research

211

(7)

Trade-offs

212

(1)

Self-Survey

212

(1)

Other Techniques

212

(1)

Steps in Action Research

213

(2)

Why Action Research Is Different

215

(1)

Tower or Swamp?

216

(1)

Summary

216

(2)

The Big Fuzzies: Research on Difficult-to-Define Concepts

218

(6)

Positive Psychology

219

(1)

A Word on Qualitative Research

220

(1)

Summary

221

(3)

Standardized Tests and Inventories

224

(11)

What Is a Test?

224

(1)

Test Reliability and Validity

225

(1)

Using Tests and Inventories

226

(2)

Locating Suitable Tests

228

(1)

Obtaining the Tests

229

(1)

Constructing a Test

230

(2)

Projective Tests

232

(1)

Limitations

232

(1)

Summary

233

(2)

Sampling

235

(10)

Types of Samples

236

(4)

Probability Sampling

236

(1)

Random Sample

236

(1)

Stratified Sample

237

(1)

Nonprobability Sampling

238

(1)

Quota Sample

238

(1)

Purposive Sample

238

(1)

Convenience Sample

239

(1)

Generalization from Probability and Nonprobability Samples

239

(1)

How Large a Sample?

240

(1)

Gaining Access

241

(1)

Measuring Nonrespondent Bias

241

(1)

Describing the Method of Sampling

242

(1)

Limitations

242

(1)

Summary

243

(2)

Descriptive Statistics

245

(16)

Descriptive Statistics for Categorical Measures

246

(1)

Descriptive Statistics for Continuous Measures

247

(6)

Measures of Central Tendency

249

(1)

Mean(M)

249

(1)

Median (Mdn)

249

(1)

Mode

250

(1)

Measures of Variability

250

(1)

Range

251

(1)

Standard Deviation (SD)

251

(2)

Figures

253

(3)

Types of Figures

254

(1)

Bar Graphs

254

(1)

Line Graphs

254

(1)

Pie Charts

255

(1)

Guidelines for Figures

255

(1)

Statistical Tabulations and Analyses

256

(2)

Calculators

256

(1)

Computers

257

(1)

Software for Data Analysis

257

(1)

Summary

258

(3)

Inferential Statistics

261

(29)

First, Some Background

262

(2)

Testing the Null Hypothesis

263

(1)

Alternative Hypothesis

263

(1)

Probability Levels

264

(1)

Statistical Tests for Continuous Data

264

(10)

A Precondition

264

(2)

Comparing Two Groups---The t Test

266

(1)

t Ratio for Independent Groups

267

(1)

Interpreting the t Ratio

268

(1)

Hand Calculation

269

(1)

Understanding the Computer Printout

269

(1)

t Ratio for Paired Scores

269

(1)

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

269

(1)

One-way ANOVA

270

(1)

Hand Calculation

271

(1)

Understanding the Computer Printout

271

(1)

Locating the Differences

271

(1)

Advanced ANOVA Designs

271

(1)

ANOVA for Groups of Unequal Size

271

(1)

Factorial Design

272

(1)

Repeated Measures Design

273

(1)

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

273

(1)

Multivariate Designs (MANOVA)

273

(1)

A Statistical Test for Categorical Data: Chi-square

274

(4)

Hand Calculation

274

(1)

Understanding the Computer Printout

274

(2)

Limitations of Chi-square

276

(2)

Correlation

278

(5)

Pearson Product-moment Coefficient (r)

279

(1)

Hand Calculation

280

(1)

Understanding the Computer Printout

280

(1)

Spearman Rank-order Coefficient (rs)

280

(1)

Computing Ranks

281

(1)

Hand Calculation

281

(1)

Understanding the Computer Printout

281

(1)

Correlating a Continuous Variable with a Ranked Variable

282

(1)

Other Measures of Correlation

282

(1)

Presenting the Results of Statistical Tests

283

(1)

Effect Size

283

(1)

Limitations of This Chapter

284

(1)

Summary

284

(6)

Writing and Reviewing a Research Report

290

(15)

Article for a Scientific Journal

291

(8)

Title Page

291

(1)

Abstract

292

(1)

Introduction

292

(1)

Method

292

(1)

Participants

293

(1)

Apparatus/Materials

294

(1)

Setting

294

(1)

Procedure

294

(1)

Results

294

(1)

Tables and Figures

295

(2)

Discussion

297

(1)

References

297

(1)

Helpful Hints

297

(2)

Technical Reports

299

(2)

Executive Summary

300

(1)

Appendix

300

(1)

Writing a Critique

301

(3)

Need for Empathy

301

(3)

Summary

304

(1)

After The Report

305

(12)

Feedback to Participants

306

(1)

Further Research

306

(1)

Publishing the Findings

307

(2)

Research Journals

307

(1)

Choosing a Journal

308

(1)

Drafts

308

(1)

Dealing with Rejection

309

(1)

Preprints

309

(1)

Page Proofs

309

(1)

Reprints

309

(1)

Other Publication Outlets

309

(1)

Application

310

(2)

News Releases

312

(1)

Professional Meetings

312

(3)

Tips for Talks

313

(1)

Poster Sessions

314

(1)

Summary

315

(2)

Concluding Notes

317

(4)

Helpful Hints

317

(4)

APPENDIX A Critical Values

321

(7)

Table A-1. Critical Values for t Test

321

(1)

Table A-2. Critical Values for Chi-square Test

322

(1)

Table A-3. Critical Values for Pearson Product-moment Correlation Coefficient (r)

323

(1)

Table A-4. Critical Values for Spearman Rank-order Coefficient (rs)

324

(1)

Table A-5. Abridged Table of Random Numbers

325

(1)

Table A-6. Critical Values of F

326

(2)

APPENDIX B Statistical Tests

328

(6)

Table B-1. Calculation of a t Test for Matched Scores

328

(1)

Table B-2. Calculation of a One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

329

(2)

Table B-3. Computation of the Pearson Product-moment Coefficient (r)

331

(2)

Table B-4. Computation of the Spearman Rank-order Coefficient (rs)

333

(1)

APPENDIX C Using Computer Software for Data Analysis

334

(6)

List Comparisons, Contrasts, and Correlations

335

(1)

Data Entry

335

(5)

Missing Data

336

(1)

Backup Copies

336

(1)

Data List

337

(1)

Data Analysis

337

(1)

Avoid Blind Analysis

338

(2)

APPENDIX D Example of a Manuscript Prepared According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association

340

(14)

APPENDIX E Example of Style Used for a Technical Report

354

(6)

Glossary

360

(11)

Name Index

371

(5)

Subject Index

376

Amazon no longer offers textbook rentals. We do!

A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

9780195142099

0195142098

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

Write a Review

Amazon no longer offers textbook rentals. We do!

A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research Tools and Techniques

9780195142099

0195142098

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

Write a Review

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