RENT TEXTBOOKS

Preface xiii

About the Authors xvi

Acknowledgments xvii

List of Boxes xix

Chapter 1

INVESTIGATING THE NATURE OF HUMANKIND 1

The World of Physical Anthropology 2

Studies of Physical Anthropology 2

Physical Anthropology in the World ofAnthropology 2

Conclusion 3

The Nature of Science 4

Hypotheses and Testing Hypotheses 4

Science and Religion 5

Summary 6

Views on the Essence of... MORE Humans, Nature, and Time 7

Questioning the Old Ideas 7

Early Evolutionary Ideas 8

What Is the Age of the Earth? 10

Humans before Adam and Eve? 11

Box 1-1 William “Strata” Smith 11

Darwin’s Voyage of Discovery 12

Darwinian Natural Selection 13

Evolution and Anti-Evolution Movements 15

Box 1-2 The Scopes Trial 16

Box 1-3 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 18

Evolutionary Theory after Darwin: The Grand Synthesis 19

Summary 20

Key Terms 20

Study Questions 20

Critical Thinking Questions 21

Suggested Readings 21

Suggested Websites 22

Chapter 2

THE STUDY OF HEREDITY 23

Discovering the Mechanisms of Heredity 24

Problems in the Study of Heredity 24

The Work of Gregor Mendel 24

Box 2-1 Gregor Mendel and the Discovery of the Laws ofHeredity 25

A Model of Genetic Events 26

What Is a Trait? 27

Mendelian Inheritance in Humans 28

Summary 30

Cytogenetics 31

The Chromosomes 31

Cell Division 32

Reexamining Mendelian Genetics 35

Summary 39

The Molecular Basis of Heredity 39

Molecules of Life 39

The Nucleic Acids 40

Box 2-2 Facts about DNA 42

Protein Synthesis 44

Summary 45

Key Terms 46

Study Questions 46

Critical Thinking Questions 47

Suggested Readings 47

Suggested Websites 47

Chapter 3

THE MODERN STUDY OF HUMAN GENETICS 48

Medical Genetics 49

Blood-Type Systems 49

Human Inherited Abnormalities 51

Other Patterns of Inheritance 53

Box 3-1 Sex and the Olympics 54

Chromosomal Abnormalities 55

Summary 58

Genetics and Human Affairs 58

Genetics and Medicine 58

The Control of Human Biological Evolution 60

Box 3-2 Genetics and Insurance: An Ethical Dilemma 62

Summary 63

Advances in the Molecular Study of Genetics 63

What Is a Gene? 63

The Human Genome 64

Box 3-3 Landmarks in Genetics: The First DNA Sequence of an Animal Genome Is Decoded 65

Box 3-4 DNA Fingerprinting 66

Summary 66

Key Terms 66

Study Questions 67

Critical Thinking Questions 67

Suggested Readings 68

Suggested Websites 68

Chapter 4

POPULATION GENETICS 69

A Model of Population Genetics 70

Populations 70

Genetic Equilibrium 71

Using the Genetic-Equilibrium Model 73

Summary 75

Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change 75

Mutations 75

Genetic Drift, Population Bottlenecking, and the Founder Principle 77

Box 4-1 The Case of the Island of the Colorblind 79

Box 4-2 The Case of Mad King George 80

Gene Flow 80

Nonrandom Mating 81

Differential Fertility 82

Box 4-3 The Population Genetics of Religious Isolates 83

Summary 84

Key Terms 84

Study Questions 84

Critical Thinking Questions 85

Suggested Readings 85

Suggested Websites 85

Chapter 5

NATURAL SELECTION AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES 86

Box 5-1 The Importance of Words 87

Natural Selection 87

Environment, Habitat, and Niche 88

The Mechanisms of Natural Selection 88

Types of Natural Selection 90

Natural Selection in Humans 91

Natural Selection and Sickle-Cell Anemia 93

Sexual Selection 96

Kin Selection 98

Summary 99

The Origin of Species 100

The Evolution of Subspecies 100

Box 5-2 Social Darwinism 101

The Evolution of Species 101

Specialized and Generalized Species 103

Rates of Speciation 104

Box 5-3 Eugenics and the Reduction of Variability 105

Some Basic Concepts in Evolutionary Theory 106

Summary 109

Key Terms 109

Study Questions 110

Critical Thinking Questions 110

Suggested Readings 110

Suggested Websites 111

Chapter 6

PEOPLE’S PLACE IN NATURE 112

Taxonomy 113

Linnaeus’s Classification 113

Box 6-1 The Diversity of Life 114

The Taxonomic Hierarchy 114

The Basis of Modern Taxonomy 115

Determining Evolutionary Relationships 116

Box 6-2 The Feet of Whales 117

Cladistics 119

Box 6-3 Linnaean Systematics in the Twenty-First Century 121

Summary 121

People and the Animal World 122

The Animal Kingdom 122

The Phylum Chordata 122

The Vertebrates 122

The Mammals 124

Summary 129

Key Terms 130

Study Questions 130

Critical Thinking Questions 130

Suggested Readings 131

Suggested Websites 131

Chapter 7

THE LIVING PRIMATES 132

The Primate Order 133

The Evolution of the Primates 133

Characteristics of the Primates 134

The Senses 134

Box 7-1 The Advantages of Color Vision 135

The Growth and Development of Primates 136

Summary 138

The Living Primates 139

The Lemuriformes 139

The Tarsiiformes 143

The New World Monkeys 144

The Old World Monkeys 145

The Apes 147

The Gibbons 148

Box 7-2 Talking about Apes and Humans 149

The Orangutan 150

The African Great Apes 151

Box 7-3 The Discovery of the Gorilla 152

Humans 155

Box 7-4 Vanishing Primates 156

Summary 156

Key Terms 157

Study Questions 157

Critical Thinking Questions 157

Suggested Readings 157

Suggested Websites 158

Chapter 8

COMPARATIVE STUDIES: ANATOMY AND GENETICS 159

Locomotor Patterns among the Primates 160

Comparative Anatomy of Primate Locomotion 162

The Hominoid Skeleton 163

Adaptations for Erect Bipedalism 165

Comparative Anatomy of the Hand 167

Summary 169

Comparative Anatomy of the Skull and the Brain 170

Positioning of the Skull on the Spine 170

The Sense Organs 170

The Evolution of the Brain 172

Primate Dentition 174

Box 8-1 The Ultrastructure of Tooth Enamel 176

The Jaw 179

Summary 181

Comparative Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology 181

Comparative Cytogenetics 182

Comparative Studies of Proteins 184

Comparative Genomics 186

Summary 187

Key Terms 187

Study Questions 188

Critical Thinking Questions 188

Suggested Readings 188

Suggested Websites 189

Chapter 9

NONHUMAN PRIMATE BEHAVIOR 190

Primate Behavior 191

Kinds of Primate Social Organization 191

Box 9-1 The Behavior of the Dwarf Lemur 193

Methods in the Study of Primate Behavior 194

Box 9-2 The Rhesus Monkeys of Cayo Santiago 195

Summary 196

Case Studies of Primate Behavior 196

Social Behavior of the Gibbon 196

Social Behavior of the Gelada 198

Social Behavior of the Savanna Baboon 200

Social Behavior of the Chimpanzee 206

Box 9-3 The Sexual Behavior of the Bonobo 209

Summary 211

Key Terms 211

Study Questions 211

Critical Thinking Questions 212

Suggested Readings 212

Suggested Websites 213

Chapter 10

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN PERSPECTIVE 214

Social Behavior of Human Foragers 215

The Structure of the Human Band 215

Age and Diet 217

Summary 219

Are Humans Unique? 219

Culture 220

Protoculture among Nonhuman

Primates 221

Human Universals 222

Communication 224

Language 225

Box 10-1 Bird and Human Communication: Alex the Parrot and the FOXP2 Gene 228

Intelligence in Nonhuman Primates 228

Summary 231

Key Terms 232

Study Questions 232

Critical Thinking Questions 232

Suggested Readings 232

Suggested Websites 233

Chapter 11

THE RECORD OF THE PAST 234

Box 11-1 Fossils of the Gods 235

Fossils and Their Interpretation 235

The Nature of Fossils 236

Biases in the Fossil Record 237

Differential Preservation 239

What Can Fossils Tell Us? 240

Taxonomy and the Fossil Record 241

Summary 244

Geological Time 244Stratigraphy 244

Box 11-2 What Is a Billion? 245

Box 11-3 The Piltdown Skull 247

Chronometric Dating Techniques 247

Radiometric Dating Techniques 248

Other Dating Techniques 251

The Geomagnetic Time Scale 252

The Geological Time Scale 252

Plate Tectonics 253

A Brief History of the Cenozoic 255

Box 11-4 Where Have All the Dinosaurs Gone? 256

Summary 258

Key Terms 259

Study Questions 259

Critical Thinking Questions 259

Suggested Readings 260

Suggested Websites 260

Chapter 12

THE EARLY PRIMATE FOSSIL RECORD AND THE ORIGINS OF THEHOMININS 261

Evolution of the Early Primates 262

The Earliest Primates 262

The Early True Primates and the Origins of the Prosimians 263

Summary 266

Evolution of the Anthropoidea 266

The Earliest Anthropoids 266

The Anthropoids of the Fayum 267

The Evolution of the New World Monkeys 269

The Evolution of the Old World Monkeys 269

Summary 271

Evolution of the Hominoidea 271

Hominoids of the Early Miocene 271

Continents in Collision 273

The Miocene Hominid Radiation 273

The Origins of the Modern Hominids 277

Box 12-1 What Gigantopithecus Had for Dinner 278

Summary 279

The Origin of the Hominins 279

Sahelanthropus tchadensis 280

Orrorin tugenensis 281

Ardipithecus kadabba 282

Ardipithecus ramidus 282

Summary 283

Key Terms 284

Study Questions 284

Critical Thinking Questions 284

Suggested Readings 285

Suggested Websites 285

Chapter 13

THE EARLY HOMININS 286

Discoveries of the Early Hominins 287

The Early Hominins of South Africa 287

Box 13-1 Naming Fossils 288

The Fossils of Olduvai Gorge 292

The Fossils of the Lake Turkana Basin 294

The Fossils of the Afar 297

Box 13-2 Was Lucy a Swinger? 298

The Laetoli Footprints 299

The Fossils of Chad 301

Drawing a Family Tree 301

Summary 302

Early Hominins: Interpretations of the Evidence 304

Australopithecines as Erect Bipeds 305

Box 13-3 What Is a Tool? 307

Early Hominin Tool Use 307

Early Hominin Dentition 309

The Early Hominin Brain 311

The Early Hominin Skull 312

Ecology and the Early Hominins 313

Summary 316

Key Terms 316

Study Questions 316

Critical Thinking Questions 317

Suggested Readings 317

Suggested Websites 318

Chapter 14

EARLY SPECIES OF THE GENUS HOMO 319

The Early Homo Fossil Record 320

The Genus Homo 320

Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis 322

Homo ergaster and Homo erectus 323

Box 14-1 The Disappearance of the Zhoukoudian Fossils 329

Homo antecessor 332

Homo heidelbergensis 332

Box 14-2 How Do You Spell and Pronounce “Neandert_l”? 335

Homo neandertalensis 335

Box 14-3 La Chapelle-aux-Saints 338

Summary 343

The Culture of Early Homo 344

Interpreting the Archaeological Evidence 344

The Culture of the Earliest Homo 345

Hunting, Scavenging, and Gathering 349

The Brain and Language in Prehistoric Populations 350

The Culture of the Neandertals 352

Box 14-4 Whom Are We Having for Dinner? The Roots of Cannibalism 356

Summary 357

Key Terms 357

Study Questions 358

Critical Thinking Questions 358

Suggested Readings 359

Suggested Websites 359

Chapter 15

THE EVOLUTION OF HOMO SAPIENS 360

Homo sapiens 361

The Distribution of Fossil Homo sapiens in the Old World 361

Ideas on the Origins of Homo sapiens 364

Box 15-1 Symbolism, Ochre, Shellfish, and the Origin ofModern Human Behavior and Cognition 365

The Migrations of Homo sapiens to Australia and the New World 366

Summary 369

The Culture of Homo sapiens 370

Humans’Relationship to the Environment 370

Upper Paleolithic Technology 370

Art of the Upper Paleolithic 372

Upper Paleolithic Cultural Traditions 373

Box 15-2 Upper Paleolithic Cave Art 375

Archaeology of the New World 376

Summary 378

Post-Pleistocene Homo sapiens 378

The Mesolithic: Transition from Hunting-Gathering to Farming 378

Box 15-3 “Man’s Best Friend” 379

The Origins of Farming 379

The Neolithic 380

The Rise of Civilization 381

Summary 382

Key Terms 383

Study Questions 383

Critical Thinking Questions 383

Suggested Readings 383

Suggested Websites 384

Chapter 16

THE BIOLOGY OF MODERN HOMO SAPIENS 385

Human Adaptability: Adjustments 386

Behavioral Adjustments 386

Acclimatory Adjustments 387

Box 16-1 How High Can People Live without BottledOxygen? 390

Developmental Adjustments 392

Summary 393

Human Adaptation 393

The Nature of Skin Color 393

Adaptation and Body Build 395

Summary 396

The Nature of Human Growth and Development 397

Growth and Development of the Human Body 398

Puberty 401

Control of Growth and Development 404

The Secular Trend in Growth and Development 406

Box 16-2 Aging 407

The Adult Skeleton 408

Summary 409

Key Terms 410

Study Questions 410

Critical Thinking Questions 410

Suggested Readings 411

Suggested Websites 411

Chapter 17

THE ANALYSIS OF HUMAN VARIATION 412

The Distribution of Variability 413

Clinal Distributions 413

Variability in Frequency of Genetic Disease 414

Cultural Variation 415

Summary 417

Box 17-1 Skeletal Evidence of Cultural Practices 418

The Classification of Human Variation 418

Folk Taxonomies of Race 418

Attempts at Scientific Classifications of Human Variation 420

The Genetic Relationship between Human Populations 426

Race as Illusion 428

Race and Medicine 429

Human Variation and Intelligence 430

Human Variation and Cultural Capabilities 431

Summary 432

Key Terms 433

Study Questions 433

Critical Thinking Questions 433

Suggested Readings 433

Suggested Websites 434

Chapter 18

THE MODERN WORLD 435

Cultural Changes and Their Consequences 436

Urbanization and Industrialization 437

The Role of Disease in Human Evolution 441

Box 18-1 Human Technology as a Selective Agent 444

The Earth at Risk 445

What Can We Say about the Future? 450

Learning from Our Mistakes 451

Box 18-2 People Made to Order 451

Summary 452

Application of Anthropological Knowledge 452

Darwinian Medicine 453

Forensic Anthropology 454

Anthropology and You—A Personal Note to the Student 455

Summary 457

Key Terms 457

Study Questions 457

Critical Thinking Questions 458

Suggested Readings 458

Suggested Websites 458

Appendix: An Introduction to Skeletal Anatomy and the Anatomy of the Brain A–1

Glossary G–1

Glossary of Primate Higher Taxa G–20

Credits C–1

Index I–1