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Life, Vol. I: The Cell and Heredity (Chs. 1-20)

by: Sadava, David E.; Heller, H. Craig; Orians, Gordon H.; Purves, William K.; Hillis, David M.

Life, Vol. I: The Cell and Heredity (Chs. 1-20)

by: Sadava, David E.; Heller, H. Craig; Orians, Gordon H.; Purves, William K.; Hillis, David M.

ISBN 13:
9780716776734
ISBN 10:
0716776731
Edition: 8th
Format: Paperback
Copyright: 12/08/2006
Publisher: W. H. Freeman

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Summary

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Part One The Science and Building Blocks of Life

Studying Life

(18)

What Is Biology?

(7)

Living organisms consist of cells

(1)

The diversity of life is due to evolution by natural selection

(2)

Biological information is contained in a genetic language common to all organisms

(1)

Cells use nutrients to supply energy and to build new structures

(1)

Living organisms control their internal environment

(2)

Living organisms interact with one another

(1)

Discoveries in biology can be generalized

(1)

How Is All Life on Earth Related?

(3)

Life arose from nonlife via chemical evolution

(1)

Biological evolution began when cells formed

(1)

Photosynthesis changed the course of evolution

(1)

Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes

(1)

Multicellularity arose and cells became specialized

(1)

Biologists can trace the evolutionary Tree of Life

(1)

How Do Biologists Investigate Life?

(3)

Observation is an important skill

(1)

The scientific method combines observation and logic

(1)

Good experiments have the potential of falsifying hypotheses

(1)

Statistical methods are essential scientific tools

(1)

Not all forms of inquiry are scientific

(1)

How Does Biology Influence Public Policy?

(4)

The Chemistry of Life

(18)

What Are the Chemical Elements That Make Up Living Organisms?

(4)

An element consists of only one kind of atom

(1)

Protons: Their number identifies an element

(1)

Neutrons: Their number differs among isotopes

(1)

Electrons: Their behavior determines chemical bonding

(2)

How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules?

(5)

Covalent bonds consist of shared pairs of electrons

(2)

Multiple covalent bonds

(1)

Ionic bonds form by electrical attraction

(2)

Hydrogen bonds may form within or between molecules with polar covalent bonds

(1)

Polar and nonpolar substances: Each interacts best with its own kind

(1)

How Do Atoms Change Partners in Chemical Reactions?

(1)

What Properties of Water Make It So Important in Biology?

(7)

Water has a unique structure and special properties

(1)

Water is the solvent of life

(1)

Aqueous solutions may be acidic or basic

(1)

pH is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration

(1)

Buffers minimize pH change

(1)

Life's chemistry began in water

(2)

An Overview and a Preview

(2)

Macromolecules and the Origin of Life

(30)

What Kinds of Molecules Characterize Living Things?

(3)

Functional groups give specific properties to molecules

(1)

Isomers have different arrangements of the same atoms

(1)

The structures of macromolecules reflect their functions

(1)

Most macromolecules are formed by condensation and broken down by hydrolysis

(1)

What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Proteins?

(7)

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

(1)

Peptide bonds form the backbone of a protein

(1)

The primary structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence

(1)

The secondary structure of a protein requires hydrogen bonding

(1)

The tertiary structure of a protein is formed by bending and folding

(1)

The quaternary structure of a protein consists of subunits

(1)

Both shape and surface chemistry contribute to protein specificity

(2)

Environmental conditions affect protein structure

(1)

Chaperonins help shape proteins

(1)

What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Carbohydrates?

(5)

Monosaccharides are simple sugars

(1)

Glycosidic linkages bond monosaccharides

(1)

Polysaccharides store energy and provide structural materials

(2)

Chemically modified carbohydrates contain additional functional groups

(1)

What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Lipids?

(3)

Fats and oils store energy

(1)

Phospholipids form biological membranes

(1)

Not all lipids are triglycerides

(1)

What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Nucleic Acids?

(4)

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids

(2)

The uniqueness of a nucleic acid resides in its nucleotide sequence

(1)

DNA reveals evolutionary relationships

(1)

Nucleotides have other important roles

(1)

How Did Life on Earth Begin?

(7)

Could life have come from outside Earth?

(1)

Did life originate on Earth?

(1)

Chemical evolution may have led to polymerization

(1)

RNA may have been the first biological catalyst

(1)

Experiments disproved spontaneous generation of life

(5)

Part Two Cells and Energy

Cells: The Working Units of Life

(28)

What Features of Cells Make Them the Fundamental Unit of Life?

(3)

Cell size is limited by the surface area-to-volume ratio

(1)

Microscopes are needed to visualize cells

(2)

Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane

(1)

Cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic

(1)

What Are the Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?

(2)

Prokaryotic cells share certain features

(1)

Some prokaryotic cells have specialized features

(1)

What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

(16)

Compartmentalization is the key to eukaryotic cell function

(1)

Organelles can be studied by microscopy or isolated for chemical analysis

(1)

Some organelles process information

(4)

The endomembrane system is a group of interrelated organelles

(3)

Some organelles transform energy

(1)

Several other organelles are surrounded by a membrane

(3)

The cytoskeleton is important in cell structure

(4)

What Are the Roles of Extracellular Structures?

(2)

The plant cell wall is an extracellular structure

(1)

The extracellular matrix supports tissue functions in animals

(1)

How Did Eukaryotic Cells Originate?

(4)

The endosymbiosis theory suggests how eukaryotes evolved

(1)

Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes continue to evolve

(4)

The Dynamic Cell Membrane

(22)

What Is the Structure of a Biological Membrane?

(5)

Lipids constitute the bulk of a membrane

(2)

Membrane proteins are asymmetrically distributed

(1)

Membranes are dynamic

100

(1)

Membrane carbohydrates are recognition sites

101

(1)

How Is the Plasma Membrane Involved in Cell Adhesion and Recognition?

102

(3)

Cell recognition and cell adhesion involve proteins at the cell surface

102

(1)

Three types of cell junctions connect adjacent cells

102

(3)

What Are the Passive Processes of Membrane Transport?

105

(6)

Diffusion is the process of random movement toward a state of equilibrium

105

(1)

Simple diffusion takes place through the phospholipid bilayer

106

(1)

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across membranes

106

(2)

Diffusion may be aided by channel proteins

108

(2)

Carrier proteins aid diffusion by binding substances

110

(1)

How Do Substances Cross Membranes against a Concentration Gradient?

111

(2)

Active transport is directional

111

(1)

Primary and secondary active transport rely on different energy sources

111

(2)

How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?

113

(1)

Macromolecules and particles enter the cell by endocytosis

113

(1)

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is highly specific

113

(1)

Exocytosis moves materials out of the cell

114

(1)

What Are Some Other Functions of Membranes?

114

(4)

Energy, Enzymes, and Metabolism

118

(20)

What Physical Principles Underlie Biological Energy Transformations?

119

(4)

There are two basic types of energy and of metabolism

119

(1)

The first law of thermodynamics: Energy is neither created nor destroyed

120

(1)

The second law of thermodynamics: Disorder tends to increase

120

(2)

Chemical reactions release or consume energy

122

(1)

Chemical equilibrium and free energy are related

123

(1)

What Is the Role of ATP in Biochemical Energetics?

123

(2)

ATP hydrolysis releases energy

124

(1)

ATP couples exergonic and endergonic reactions

124

(1)

What Are Enzymes?

125

(3)

For a reaction to proceed, an energy barrier must be overcome

126

(1)

Enzymes bind specific reactant molecules

126

(1)

Enzymes lower the energy barrier but do not affect equilibrium

127

(1)

How Do Enzymes Work?

128

(3)

Molecular structure determines enzyme function

129

(1)

Some enzymes require other molecules in order to function

129

(1)

Substrate concentration affects reaction rate

130

(1)

How Are Enzyme Activities Regulated?

131

(7)

Enzymes can be regulated by inhibitors

131

(1)

Allosteric enzymes control their activity by changing their shape

132

(1)

Allosteric effects regulate metabolism

133

(1)

Enzymes are affected by their environment

133

(5)

Pathways That Harvest Chemical Energy

138

(22)

How Does Glucose Oxidation Release Chemical Energy?

139

(3)

Cells trap free energy while metabolizing glucose

139

(1)

An overview: Harvesting energy from glucose

140

(1)

Redox reactions transfer electrons and energy

140

(1)

The coenzyme NAD is a key electron carrier in redox reactions

141

(1)

What Are the Aerobic Pathways of Glucose Metabolism?

142

(5)

The energy-investing reactions of glycolysis require ATP

142

(2)

The energy-harvesting reactions of glycolysis yield NADH + H+ and ATP

144

(1)

Pyruvate oxidation links glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

144

(1)

The citric acid cycle completes the oxidation of glucose to CO2

145

(2)

The citric acid cycle is regulated by concentrations of starting materials

147

(1)

How Is Energy Harvested from Glucose in the Absence of Oxygen?

147

(1)

How Does the Oxidation of Glucose Form ATP?

148

(5)

The electron transport chain shuttles electrons and releases energy

149

(1)

Proton diffusion is coupled to ATP synthesis

150

(3)

Why Does Cellular Respiration Yield So Much More Energy Than Fermentation?

153

(1)

How Are Metabolic Pathways Interrelated and Controlled?

154

(6)

Catabolism and anabolism involve interconversions of biological monomers

154

(1)

Catabolism and anabolism are integrated

155

(1)

Metabolic pathways are regulated systems

155

(5)

Photosynthesis: Energy from Sunlight

160

(20)

What Is Photosynthesis?

161

(2)

Photosynthesis involves two pathways

162

(1)

How Does Photosynthesis Convert Light Energy into Chemical Energy?

163

(6)

Light behaves as both a particle and a wave

163

(1)

Absorbing a photon excites a pigment molecule

163

(1)

Absorbed wavelengths correlate with biological activity

163

(1)

Photosynthesis uses energy absorbed by several pigments

164

(1)

Light absorption results in photochemical change

165

(1)

Excited chlorophyll in the reaction center acts as a reducing agent

166

(1)

Reduction leads to electron transport

166

(1)

Noncyclic electron transport produces ATP and NADPH

166

(2)

Cyclic electron transport produces ATP but no NADPH

168

(1)

Chemiosmosis is the source of the ATP produced in photophosphorylation

168

(1)

How Is Chemical Energy Used to Synthesize Carbohydrates?

169

(3)

Radioisotope labeling experiments revealed the steps of the Calvin cycle

169

(1)

The Calvin cycle is made up of three processes

170

(2)

Light stimulates the Calvin cycle

172

(1)

How Do Plants Adapt to the Inefficiencies of Photosynthesis?

172

(3)

Rubisco catalyzes RuBP reaction with O2 as well as with CO2

172

(1)

C4 plants can bypass photorespiration

173

(2)

CAM plants also use PEP carboxylase

175

(1)

How Is Photosynthesis Connected to Other Metabolic Pathways in Plants?

175

(5)

Part Three Heredity and the Genome

Chromosomes, The Cell Cycle, and Cell Division

180

(26)

How Do Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Divide?

181

(3)

Prokaryotes divide by binary fission

181

(1)

Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis or meiosis

182

(2)

How Is Eukaryotic Cell Division Controlled?

184

(3)

Cyclins and other proteins trigger events in the cell cycle

184

(2)

Growth factors can stimulate cells to divide

186

(1)

What Happens during Mitosis?

187

(6)

Eukaryotic DNA is packed into very compact chromosomes

187

(1)

Overview: Mitosis segregates exact copies of genetic information

188

(1)

The centrosomes determine the plane of cell division

188

(1)

Chromatids become visible and the spindle forms during prophase

189

(1)

Chromosome movements are highly organized

189

(2)

Nuclei re-form during telophase

191

(1)

Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm

192

(1)

What Is the Role of Cell Division in Sexual Life Cycles?

193

(2)

Reproduction by mitosis results in genetic constancy

193

(1)

Reproduction by meiosis results in genetic diversity

193

(2)

The number, shapes, and sizes of the metaphase chromosomes constitute the karyotype

195

(1)

What Happens When a Cell Under goes Meiosis?

195

(7)

The first meiotic division reduces the chromosome number

197

(2)

The second meiotic division separates the chromatids

199

(1)

The activities and movements of chromosomes during meiosis result in genetic diversity

199

(1)

Meiotic errors lead to abnormal chromosome structures and numbers

199

(1)

Polyploids can have difficulty in cell division

200

(2)

How Do Cells Die?

202

(4)

Genetics: Mendel and Beyond

206

(26)

What Are the Mendelian Laws of Inheritance?

207

(10)

Mendel brought new methods to experiments on inheritance

208

(1)

Mendel devised a careful research plan

208

(1)

Mendel's first experiments involved monohybrid crosses

209

(2)

Alleles are different forms of a gene

211

(1)

Mendel's first law says that the two copies of a gene segregate

211

(2)

Mendel verified his hypothesis by performing a test cross

213

(1)

Mendel's second law says that copies of different genes assort independently

213

(1)

Punnett squares or probability calculations: A choice of methods

214

(2)

Mendel's laws can be observed in human pedigrees

216

(1)

How Do Alleles Interact?

217

(2)

New alleles arise by mutation

217

(1)

Many genes have multiple alleles

218

(1)

Dominance is not always complete

218

(1)

In codominance, both alleles at a locus are expressed

219

(1)

Some alleles have multiple phenotypic effects

219

(1)

How Do Genes Interact?

219

(3)

Hybrid vigor results from new gene combinations and interactions

220

(1)

The environment affects gene action

220

(1)

Most complex phenotypes are determined by multiple genes and the environment

221

(1)

What Is the Relationship between Genes and Chromosomes

222

(6)

Genes on the same chromosome are linked

223

(1)

Genes can be exchanged between chromatids

223

(1)

Geneticists can make maps of chromosomes

224

(1)

Linkage is revealed by studies of the sex chromosomes

225

(1)

Genes on sex chromosomes are inherited in special ways

226

(1)

Humans display many sex-linked characters

227

(1)

What Are the Effects of Genes Outside the Nucleus?

228

(4)

DNA and Its Role in Heredity

232

(24)

What Is the Evidence that the Gene is DNA?

233

(5)

DNA from one type of bacterium genetically transforms another type

233

(1)

The transforming principle is DNA

234

(1)

Viral replication experiments confirmed that DNA is the genetic material

235

(2)

Eukaryotic cells can also be genetically transformed by DNA

237

(1)

What Is the Structure of DNA?

238

(3)

The chemical composition of DNA was known

238

(1)

Watson and Crick described the double helix

238

(1)

Four key features define DNA structure

239

(2)

The double-helical structure of DNA is essential to its function

241

(1)

How Is DNA Replicated?

241

(8)

Three modes of DNA replication appeared possible

241

(1)

Meselson and Stahl demonstrated that DNA replication is semiconservative

241

(1)

There are two steps in DNA replication

242

(1)

DNA is threaded through a replication complex

243

(2)

DNA polymerases add nucleotides to the growing chain

245

(2)

Telomeres are not fully replicated

247

(2)

How Are Errors in DNA Repaired?

249

(1)

What Are Some Applications of Our Knowledge of DNA Structure and Replication?

250

(6)

The polymerase chain reaction makes multiple copies of DNA

250

(1)

The nucleotide sequence of DNA can be determined

251

(5)

From DNA to Protein: Genotype to Phenotype

256

(26)

What Is the Evidence that Genes Code for Proteins?

257

(3)

Experiments on bread mold established that genes determine enzymes

257

(1)

One gene determines one polypeptide

258

(2)

How Does Information Flow from Genes to Proteins?

260

(1)

RNA differs from DNA

260

(1)

Information flows in one direction when genes are expressed

260

(1)

RNA viruses are exceptions to the central dogma

261

(1)

How Is the Information Content in DNA Transcribed to Produce RNA?

261

(4)

RNA polymerases share common features

262

(1)

Transcription occurs in three steps

262

(1)

The information for protein synthesis lies in the genetic code

263

(2)

Biologists used artificial messengers to decipher the genetic code

265

(1)

How Is RNA Translated into Proteins?

265

(7)

Transfer RNAs carry specific amino acids and bind to specific codons

266

(1)

Activating enzymes link the right tRNAs and amino acids

267

(1)

The ribosome is the workbench for translation

268

(1)

Translation takes place in three steps

268

(2)

Polysome formation increases the rate of protein synthesis

270

(2)

What Happens to Polypeptides after Translation?

272

(2)

Signal sequences in proteins direct them to their cellular destinations

272

(2)

Many proteins are modified after translation

274

(1)

What Are Mutations?

274

(8)

Point mutations change single nucleotides

275

(1)

Chromosomal mutations are extensive changes in the genetic material

276

(1)

Mutations can be spontaneous or induced

277

(1)

Mutations are the raw material of evolution

277

(5)

The Genetics of Viruses and Prokaryotes

282

(24)

How Do Viruses Reproduce and Transmit Genes?

283

(6)

Viruses are not cells

283

(1)

Viruses reproduce only with the help of living cells

284

(1)

Bacteriophage reproduce by a lytic cycle or a lysogenic cycle

284

(3)

Animal viruses have diverse reproductive cycles

287

(2)

Many plant viruses spread with the help of vectors

289

(1)

How Is Gene Expression Regulated in Viruses?

289

(1)

How Do Prokaryotes Exchange Genes?

290

(6)

The reproduction of prokaryotes gives rise to clones

290

(1)

Bacteria have several ways of recombining their genes

291

(2)

Plasmids are extra chromosomes in bacteria

293

(2)

Transposable elements move genes among plasmids and chromosomes

295

(1)

How Is Gene Expression Regulated in Prokaryotes?

296

(4)

Regulating gene transcription conserves energy

296

(1)

A single promoter can control the transcription of adjacent genes

296

(1)

Operons are units of transcription in prokaryotes

297

(1)

Operator--repressor control induces transcription in the lac operon

297

(1)

Operator-repressor control represses transcription in the trp operon

298

(1)

Protein synthesis can be controlled by increasing promoter efficiency

299

(1)

What Have We Learned from the Sequencing of Prokaryotic Genomes?

300

(6)

The sequencing of prokaryotic genomes has many potential benefits

301

(1)

Will defining the genes required for cellular life lead to artificial life?

302

(4)

The Eukaryotic Genome and Its Expression

306

(26)

What Are the Characteristics of the Eukaryotic Genome?

307

(6)

Model organisms reveal the characteristics of eukaryotic genomes

308

(3)

Eukaryotic genomes contain many repetitive sequences

311

(2)

What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Genes?

313

(3)

Protein-coding genes contain noncoding sequences

313

(2)

Gene families are important in evolution and cell specialization

315

(1)

How Are Eukaryotic Gene Transcripts Processed?

316

(2)

The primary transcript of a protein-coding gene is modified at both ends

316

(1)

Splicing removes introns from the primary transcript

316

(2)

How Is Eukaryotic Gene Transcription Regulated?

318

(6)

Specific genes can be selectively transcribed

318

(4)

Gene expression can be regulated by changes in chromatin structure

322

(2)

Selective gene amplification results in more templates for transcription

324

(1)

How Is Eukaryotic Gene Expression Regulated After Transcription?

324

(2)

Different mRNAs can be made from the same gene by alternative splicing

324

(1)

The stability of mRNA can be regulated

325

(1)

Small RNAs can break down mRNAs

325

(1)

RNA can be edited to change the encoded protein

326

(1)

How Is Gene Expression Controlled During and After Translation?

326

(6)

The initiation and extent of translation can be regulated

326

(1)

Posttranslational controls regulate the longevity of proteins

327

(5)

Part Four Molecular Biology: The Genome in Action

Cell Signaling and Communication

332

(20)

What Are Signals, and How Do Cells Respond to Them?

333

(3)

Cells receive signals from the physical environment and from other cells

333

(1)

A signal transduction pathway involves a signal, a receptor, transduction, and effects

334

(2)

How Do Signal Receptors Initiate a Cellular Response?

336

(3)

Receptors have specific binding sites for their signals

336

(1)

Receptors can be classified by location

336

(3)

How Is a Response to a Signal Transduced through the Cell?

339

(6)

Protein kinase cascades amplify a response to ligand binding

339

(1)

Second messengers can stimulate protein kinase cascades

340

(1)

Second messengers can be derived from lipids

341

(2)

Calcium ions are involved in many signal transduction pathways

343

(1)

Nitric oxide can act as a second messenger

344

(1)

Signal transduction is highly regulated

345

(1)

How Do Cells Change in Response to Signals?

345

(3)

Ion channels open in response to signals

345

(1)

Enzyme activities change in response to signals

346

(1)

Signals can initiate gene transcription

347

(1)

How Do Cells Communicate Directly?

348

(4)

Animal cells communicate by gap junctions

348

(1)

Plant cells communicate by plasmodesmata

348

(4)

Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology

352

(22)

How Are Large DNA Molecules Analyzed?

353

(5)

Restriction enzymes cleave DNA at specific sequences

353

(1)

Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments

354

(1)

DNA fingerprinting uses restriction analysis and electrophoresis

355

(1)

The DNA barcode project aims to identify all organisms on Earth

356

(2)

What Is Recombinant DNA?

358

(1)

How Are New Genes Inserted into Cells?

359

(3)

Genes can be inserted into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells

359

(1)

Vectors carry new DNA into host cells

359

(2)

Reporter genes identify host cells containing recombinant DNA

361

(1)

What Are the Sources of DNA Used in Cloning?

362

(2)

Gene libraries provide collections of DNA fragments

362

(1)

cDNA libraries are constructed from mRNA transcripts

363

(1)

DNA can be synthesized chemically in the laboratory

363

(1)

DNA mutations can be created in the laboratory

363

(1)

What Other Tools Are Used to Manipulate DNA?

364

(3)

Genes can be inactivated by homologous recombination

364

(1)

Antisense RNA and interference RNA can prevent the expression of specific genes

365

(1)

DNA chips can reveal DNA mutations and RNA expression

365

(2)

What Is Biotechnology?

367

(7)

Expression vectors can turn cells into protein factories

367

(1)

Medically useful proteins can be made by biotechnology

368

(1)

DNA manipulation is changing agriculture

369

(2)

There is public concern about biotechnology

371

(3)

Genome Sequencing, Molecular Biology, and Medicine

374

(26)

How Do Defective Proteins Lead to Diseases?

375

(5)

Genetic mutations may make proteins dysfunctional

375

(3)

Prion diseases are disorders of protein conformation

378

(1)

Most diseases are caused by both genes and environment

379

(1)

Human genetic diseases have several patterns of inheritance

379

(1)

What Kinds of DNA Changes Lead to Diseases?

380

(4)

One way to identify a gene is to start with its protein

380

(1)

Chromosome deletions can lead to gene and then protein isolation

381

(1)

Genetic markers can point the way to important genes

381

(1)

Disease-causing mutations may involve any number of base pairs

382

(1)

Expanding triplet repeats demonstrate the fragility of some human genes

382

(1)

DNA changes in males and females can have different consequences

383

(1)

How Does Genetic Screening Detect Diseases?

384

(2)

Screening for disease phenotypes can make use of protein expression

384

(1)

DNA testing is the most accurate way to detect abnormal genes

384

(2)

What Is Cancer?

386

(5)

Cancer cells differ from their normal counterparts

386

(1)

Some cancers are caused by viruses

387

(1)

Most cancers are caused by genetic mutations

387

(1)

Two kinds of genes are changed in many cancers

388

(1)

Several events must occur to turn a normal cell into a malignant cell

389

(2)

How Are Genetic Diseases Treated?

391

(2)

Genetic diseases can be treated by modifying the phenotype

391

(1)

Gene therapy offers the hope of specific treatments

391

(2)

What Have We Learned from the Human Genome Project?

393

(7)

There are two approaches to genome sequencing

393

(1)

The sequence of the human genome contained many surprises

393

(2)

The human genome sequence has many applications

395

(1)

The use of genetic information poses ethical questions

395

(1)

The proteome is more complex than the genome

395

(1)

Systems biology integrates data from genomics and proteomics

396

(4)

Immunology: Gene Expression and Natural Defense Systems

400

(26)

What Are the Major Defense Systems of Animals?

401

(3)

Blood and lymph tissues play important roles in defense systems

402

(1)

White blood cells play many defensive roles

402

(1)

Immune system proteins bind pathogens or signal other cells

403

(1)

What Are the Characteristics of the Nonspecific Defenses?

404

(3)

Barriers and local agents defend the body against invaders

404

(1)

Other nonspecific defenses include specialized proteins and cellular processes

405

(1)

Inflammation is a coordinated response to infection or injury

406

(1)

A cell signaling pathway stimulates the body's defenses

407

(1)

How Does Specific Immunity Develop?

407

(4)

The specific immune system has four key traits

407

(1)

Two types of specific immune responses interact

408

(1)

Genetic changes and clonal selection generate the specific immune response

408

(1)

Immunity and immunological memory result from clonal selection

409

(1)

Vaccines are an application of immunological memory

409

(1)

Animals distinguish self from nonself and tolerate their own antigens

410

(1)

What Is the Humoral Immune Response?

411

(3)

Some B cells develop into plasma cells

411

(1)

Different antibodies share a common structure

411

(1)

There are five classes of immuno globulins

412

(1)

Monoclonal antibodies have many uses

413

(1)

What Is the Cellular Immune Response?

414

(4)

T cell receptors are found on two types of T cells

414

(1)

The MHC encodes proteins that present antigens to the immune system

415

(2)

Helper T cells and MHC II proteins contribute to the humoral immune response

417

(1)

Cytotoxic T cells and MHC I proteins contribute to the cellular immune response

417

(1)

MHC proteins underlie the tolerance of self

417

(1)

How Do Animals Make So Many Different Antibodies?

418

(2)

Antibody diversity results from DNA rearrangement and other mutations

418

(1)

The constant region is involved in class switching

419

(1)

What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions?

420

(6)

Allergic reactions result from hypersensitivity

420

(1)

Autoimmune diseases are caused by reactions against self antigens

421

(1)

AIDS is an immune deficiency disorder

421

(5)

Differential Gene Expression in Development

426

(22)

What Are the Processes of Development?

427

(2)

Development proceeds via determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth

427

(1)

Cell fates become more and more restricted

428

(1)

Is Cell Differentiation Irreversible?

429

(6)

Plant cells are usually totipotent

429

(1)

Among animals, the cells of early embryos are totipotent

430

(1)

The somatic cells of adult animals retain the complete genome

431

(1)

Pluripotent stem cells can be induced to differentiate by environmental signals

432

(1)

Embryonic stem cells are potentially powerful therapeutic agents

433

(2)

What Is the Role of Gene Expression in Cell Differentiation?

435

(1)

Differential gene transcription is a hallmark of cell differentiation

435

(1)

Tools of molecular biology are used to investigate development

435

(1)

How Is Cell Fate Determined?

436

(3)

Cytoplasmic segregation can determine polarity and cell fate

436

(1)

Inducers passing from one cell to another can determine cell fates

437

(2)

How Does Gene Expression Determine Pattern Formation?

439

(9)

Some genes determine programmed cell death during development

439

(1)

Plants have organ identity genes

440

(1)

Morphogen gradients provide positiona information

441

(1)

In the fruit fly, a cascade of transcription factors establishes body segmentation

442

(3)

Homeobox-containing genes encode transcription factors

445

(3)

Development and Evolutionary Change

448

(16)

How Does a Molecular Tool Kit Govern Development?

449

(2)

Developmental genes in diverse organisms are similar, but have different results

449

(2)

How Can Mutations with Large Effects Change Only One Part of the Body?

451

(2)

Genetic switches govern how the molecular tool kit is used

451

(1)

Modularity allows differences in the timing and spatial pattern of gene expression

451

(2)

How Can Differences among Species Evolve?

453

(1)

How Does the Environment Modulate Development?

454

(3)

Organisms respond to signals that accurately predict the future

454

(2)

Some signals that accurately predict the future may not always occur

456

(1)

Organisms do not respond to signals that are poorly correlated with future conditions

456

(1)

Organisms may lack appropriate responses to new environmental signals

457

(1)

How Do Developmental Genes Constrain Evolution?

457

(7)

Evolution proceeds by changing what's already there

457

(1)

Conserved developmental genes can lead to parallel evolution

458

(6)

Part Five The Patterns and Processes of Evolution

The History of Life on Earth

464

(22)

How Do Scientists Date Ancient Events?

465

(3)

Radioisotopes provide a way to date rocks

466

(1)

Radioisotope dating methods have been expanded and refined

467

(1)

How Have Earth's Continents and Climates Changed over Time?

468

(3)

Oxygen has steadily increased in Earth's atmosphere

468

(2)

Earth's climate has shifted between hot/humid and cold/dry conditions

470

(1)

Volcanoes have occasionally changed the history of life

471

(1)

Extraterrestrial events have triggered changes on Earth

471

(1)

What Are the Major Events in Life's History?

471

(8)

Several processes contribute to the paucity of fossils

472

(1)

Precambrian life was small and aquatic

472

(1)

Life expanded rapidly during the Cambrian period

472

(1)

Many groups of organisms diversified

473

(3)

Geographic differentiation increased during the Mesozoic era

476

(1)

The modern biota evolved during the Cenozoic era

477

(2)

Three major faunas have dominated life on Earth

479

(1)

Why Do Evolutionary Rates Differ among Groups of Organisms?

479

(7)

``Living fossils'' exist today

479

(1)

Evolutionary changes have been gradual in most groups

479

(1)

Rates of evolutionary change are sometimes rapid

480

(1)

Rates of extinction have also varied greatly

480

(6)

The Mechanisms of Evolution

486

(22)

What Facts Form the Base of Our Understanding of Evolution?

487

(7)

Adaptation has two meanings

489

(1)

Population genetics provides an underpinning for Darwin's theory

489

(1)

Most populations are genetically variable

490

(1)

Evolutionary change can be measured by allele and genotype frequencies

491

(1)

The genetic structure of a population does not change over time if certain conditions exist

492

(1)

Deviations from Hardy--Weinberg equilibrium show that evolution is occurring

493

(1)

What Are the Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change?

494

(3)

Mutations generate genetic variation

494

(1)

Gene flow may change allele frequencies

494

(1)

Genetic drift may cause large changes in small populations

494

(1)

Nonrandom mating changes genotype frequencies

495

(2)

What Evolutionary Mechanisms Result in Adaptation?

497

(4)

Natural selection produces variable results

497

(1)

Sexual selection influences reproductive success

498

(3)

How Is Genetic Variation Maintained within Populations?

501

(2)

Neutral mutations may accumulate within populations

501

(1)

Sexual recombination amplifies the number of possible genotypes

501

(1)

Frequency-dependent selection maintains genetic variation within populations

501

(1)

Environmental variation favors genetic variation

502

(1)

Much genetic variation is maintained in geographically distinct subpopulations

503

(1)

What Are the Constraints on Evolution?

503

(2)

Developmental processes constrain evolution

504

(1)

Trade-offs constrain evolution

504

(1)

Short-term and long-term evolutionary outcomes sometimes differ

504

(1)

How Have Humans Influenced Evolution?

505

(3)

Species and Their Formation

508

(16)

What Are Species?

509

(2)

We can recognize and identify many species by their appearance

509

(1)

Species form over time

510

(1)

How Do New Species Arise?

511

(4)

Allopatric speciation requires almost complete genetic isolation

511

(2)

Sympatric speciation occurs without physical barriers

513

(2)

What Happens when Newly Formed Species Come Together?

515

(3)

Prezygotic barriers operate before fertilization

515

(1)

Postzygotic barriers operate after fertilization

516

(1)

Hybrid zones may form if reproductive isolation is incomplete

517

(1)

Why Do Rates of Speciation Vary?

518

(2)

Why Do Adaptive Radiations Occur?

520

(4)

The Evolution of Genes and Genomes

524

(18)

What Can Genomes Reveal about Evolution?

525

(5)

Evolution of genomes results in biological diversity

525

(1)

Genes and proteins are compared through sequence alignment

526

(1)

Models of sequence evolution are used to calculate evolutionary divergence

527

(1)

Experimental studies examine molecular evolution directly

527

(3)

What Are the Mechanisms of Molecular Evolution?

530

(6)

Much of evolution is neutral

531

(1)

Positive and stabilizing selection can be detected in the genome

532

(1)

Genome size and organization also evolve

533

(1)

New functions can arise by gene duplication

534

(1)

Some gene families evolve through concerted evolution

535

(1)

What Are Some Applications of Molecular Evolution?

536

(6)

Molecular sequence data are used to determine the evolutionary history of genes

537

(1)

Gene evolution is used to study protein function

538

(1)

In vitro evolution produces new molecules

538

(1)

Molecular evolution is used to study and combat diseases

538

(4)

Reconstructing and Using Phylogenies

542

(18)

What Is Phylogeny?

543

(2)

All of life is connected through evolutionary history

544

(1)

Comparisons among species require an evolutionary perspective

544

(1)

How Are Phylogenetic Trees Constructed?

545

(6)

Parsimony provides the simplest explanation for phylogenetic data

546

(1)

Phylogenies are reconstructed from many sources of data

547

(1)

Mathematical models expand the power of phylogenetic reconstruction

548

(1)

The accuracy of phylogenetic methods can be tested

549

(1)

Ancestral states can be reconstructed

550

(1)

Molecular clocks add a dimension of time

551

(1)

How Do Biologists Use Phylogenetic Trees?

551

(3)

Phylogenies help us reconstruct the past

551

(1)

Phylogenies allow us to compare and contrast living organisms

552

(1)

Biologists use phylogenies to predict the future

553

(1)

How Does Phylogeny Relate to Classification?

554

(6)

Phylogeny is the basis for modern biological classification

555

(1)

Several codes of biological nomenclature govern the use of scientific names

555

(5)

Part Six The Evolution of Diversity

Bacteria and Archaea: The Prokaryotic Domains

560

(22)

How Did the Living World Begin to Diversify?

561

(2)

The three domains differ in significant ways

561

(2)

Where Are Prokaryotes Found?

563

(2)

Prokaryotes generally form complex communities

563

(2)

What Are Some Keys to the Success of Prokaryotes?

565

(4)

Prokaryotes have distinctive cell walls

565

(1)

Prokaryotes have distinctive modes of locomotion

566

(1)

Prokaryotes reproduce asexually, but genetic recombination can occur

566

(1)

Some prokaryotes communicate

566

(1)

Prokaryotes have amazingly diverse metabolic pathways

567

(2)

How Can We Determine Prokaryote Phylogeny?

569

(2)

Size complicates the study of prokaryote phylogeny

569

(1)

The nucleotide sequences of prokaryotes reveal their evolutionary relationships

569

(1)

Lateral gene transfer may complicate phylogenetic studies

570

(1)

The great majority of prokaryote species have never been studied

570

(1)

Mutations are a major source of prokaryotic variation

571

(1)

What Are the Major Known Groups of Prokaryotes?

571

(7)

Spirochetes move by means of axial filaments

571

(1)

Chlamydias are extremely small parasites

572

(1)

Some high-GC Gram-positives are valuable sources of antibiotics

572

(1)

Cyanobacteria are important photoautotrophs

573

(1)

Not all low-GC Gram-positives are Gram-positive

573

(1)

The Proteobacteria are a large and diverse group

574

(1)

Archaea differ in several important ways from bacteria

575

(1)

Many Crenarchaeota live in hot, acidic places

576

(1)

The Euryarchaeota live in many surprising places

577

(1)

Korarchaeota and Nanoarchaeota are less well known

577

(1)

How Do Prokaryotes Affect Their Environments?

578

(4)

Prokaryotes are important players in element cycling

578

(1)

Prokaryotes live on and in other organisms

579

(1)

A small minority of bacteria are pathogens

579

(3)

The Origin and Diversification of the Eukaryotes

582

(28)

How Do Microbial Eukaryotes Affect the World Around Them?

583

(5)

The phylogeny and morphology of the microbial eukaryotes both illustrate their diversity

583

(1)

Phytoplankton are the primary producers of the marine food web

584

(1)

Some microbial eukaryotes are endosymbionts

585

(1)

Some microbial eukaryotes are deadly

585

(1)

We continue to rely on the products of ancient marine microbial eukaryotes

586

(2)

How Did the Eukaryotic Cel Arise?

588

(3)

The modern eukaryotic cell arose in several steps

588

(1)

Chloroplasts are a study in endosymbiosis

589

(1)

We cannot yet account for the presence of some prokaryotic genes in eukaryotes

590

(1)

How Did the Microbial Eukaryotes Diversify?

591

(2)

Microbial eukaryotes have different lifestyles

591

(1)

Microbial eukaryotes have diverse means of locomotion

591

(1)

Microbial eukaryotes employ vacuoles in several ways

591

(1)

The cell surfaces of microbial eukaryotes are diverse

592

(1)

How Do Microbial Eukaryotes Reproduce?

593

(3)

Some microbial eukaryotes have reproduction without sex, and sex without reproduction

593

(1)

Many microbial eukaryote life cycles feature alternation of generations

593

(1)

Chlorophytes provide examples of several life cycles

594

(1)

The life cycles of some microbial eukaryotes require more than one host species

595

(1)

What Are the Major Groups of Eukaryotes?

596

(14)

Alveolates have sacs under their plasma membrane

596

(2)

Stramenopiles have two unequal flagella, one with hairs

598

(3)

Red algae have a distinctive accessory photosynthetic pigment

601

(1)

Chlorophytes, charophytes, and land plants contain chlorophylls a and b

602

(1)

Diplomonads and parabasalids are excavates that lack mitochondria

603

(1)

Heteroloboseans alternate between amoeboid forms and forms with flagella

603

(1)

Euglenids and kinetoplastids have distinctive mitochondria and flagella

603

(1)

Foraminiferans have created vast limestone deposits

604

(1)

Radiolarians have thin, stiff pseudo-pods

605

(1)

Amoebozoans use lobe-shaped pseudopods for locomotion

605

(5)

Plants without Seeds: From Sea to Land

610

(20)

How Did the Land Plants Arise?

611

(2)

There are ten major groups of land plants

611

(1)

The land plants arose from a green algal clade

612

(1)

How Did Plants Colonize and Thrive on Land?

613

(3)

Adaptations to life on land distinguish land plants from green algae

613

(1)

The nonvascular plants usually live where water is available

614

(1)

Life cycles of land plants feature alternation of generations

614

(2)

The sporophytes of nonvascular plants are dependent on gametophytes

616

(1)

What Features Distinguish the Vascular Plants?

616

(6)

Vascular tissues transport water and dissolved materials

617

(1)

Vascular plants have been evolving for almost half a billion years

618

(1)

The earliest vascular plants lacked roots and leaves

619

(1)

The vascular plants branched out

619

(1)

Roots may have evolved from branches

619

(1)

Pteridophytes and seed plants have true leaves

620

(1)

Heterospory appeared among the vascular plants

621

(1)

What Are the Major Clades of Seedless Plants?

622

(8)

Liverworts may be the most ancient surviving plant clade

622

(1)

Hornworts have stomata, distinctive chloroplasts, and sporophytes without stalks

622

(1)

Water and sugar transport mechanisms emerged in the mosses

623

(1)

Some vascular plants have vascular tissue but not seeds

624

(1)

The club mosses are sister to the other vascular plants

624

(1)

Horsetails, whisk ferns, and ferns constitute a clade

625

(5)

The Evolution of Seed Plants

630

(20)

How Did Seed Plants Become Today's Dominant Vegetation?

631

(3)

Features of the seed plant life cycle protect gametes and embryos

631

(2)

The seed is a complex, well-protected package

633

(1)

A change in anatomy enabled seed plants to grow to great heights

634

(1)

What Are the Major Groups of Gymnosperms?

634

(4)

The relationship between gnetophytes and confiers is a subject of continuing research

635

(1)

Conifers have cones but no motile gametes

636

(2)

What Features Distinguish the Angiosperms?

638

(7)

The sexual structures of angiosperms are flowers

638

(2)

Flower structure has evolved over time

640

(1)

Angiosperms have coevolved with animals

641

(1)

The angiosperm life cycle features double fertilization

642

(1)

Angiosperms produce fruits

643

(2)

How Did the Angiosperms Originate and Diversify?

645

(2)

The basal angiosperm clade is a matter of controversy

645

(1)

The origin of the angiosperms remains a mystery

646

(1)

How Do Plants Support Our World?

647

(3)

Seed plants are our primary food source

647

(1)

Seed plants have been sources of medicines since ancient times

647

(3)

Fungi: Recyclers, Pathogens, Parasites, and Plant Partners

650

(20)

How Do Fungi Thrive in Virtually Every Environment?

651

(4)

The body of a multicellular fungus is composed of hyphae

651

(1)

Fungi are in intimate contact with their environment

652

(1)

Fungi exploit many nutrient sources

653

(1)

Fungi balance nutrition and reproduction

654

(1)

How Are Fungi Beneficial to Other Organisms?

655

(4)

Saprobic fungi dispose of Earth's garbage and contribute to the planetary carbon cycle

655

(1)

Mutualistic relationships are beneficial to both partners

655

(1)

Lichens can grow where plants cannot

655

(2)

Mycorrhizae are essential to most plants

657

(1)

Endophytic fungi protect some plants from pathogens, herbivores, and stress

658

(1)

Some fungi are food for the ants that farm them

658

(1)

How Do Fungal Life Cycles Differ from One Another?

659

(4)

Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually

659

(3)

The dikaryotic condition is unique to the fungi

662

(1)

The life cycles of some parasitic fungi require two hosts

662

(1)

``Imperfect fungi'' lack a sexual stage

663

(1)

How Do We Tell the Fungal Groups Apart?

663

(7)

Chytrids are the only fungi with flagella

663

(1)

Zygomycetes reproduce sexually by fusion of two gametangia

664

(1)

Glomeromycetes form arbuscular mycorrhizae

665

(1)

The sexual reproductive structure of ascomycetes is the ascus

665

(2)

The sexual reproductive structure of basidiomycetes is a basidium

667

(3)

Animal Origins and the Evolution of Body Plans

670

(20)

What Evidence Indicates the Animals Are Monophyletic?

671

(3)

Animal monophyly is supported by gene sequences and morphology

671

(1)

Developmental patterns show evolutionary relationships among animals

672

(2)

What Are the Features of Animal Body Plans?

674

(2)

Most animals are symmetrical

674

(1)

The structure of the body cavity influences movement

674

(1)

Segmentation improves control of movement

675

(1)

Appendages enhance locomotion

676

(1)

How Do Animals Get Their Food?

676

(3)

Filter feeders capture small prey

676

(1)

Herbivores eat plants

677

(1)

Predators capture and subdue large prey

678

(1)

Parasites live in or on other organisms

679

(1)

How Do Animal Life Cycles Differ?

679

(3)

All life cycles have at least one dispersal stage

680

(1)

No life cycle can maximize all benefits

680

(1)

Parasite life cycles evolve to facilitate dispersal and overcome host defenses

681

(1)

What Are the Major Groups of Animals?

682

(8)

Sponges are loosely organized animals

683

(1)

Ctenophores are radially symmetrical and diploblastic

684

(1)

Cnidarians are specialized carnivores

685

(5)

Protostome Animals

690

(26)

What Is a Protostome?

691

(4)

Trochophores, lophophores, and spiral cleavage evolved among the lophotrochozoans

692

(1)

Ecdysozoans must shed their exoskeletons

693

(1)

Arrow worms retain some ancestral developmental features

694

(1)

What Are the Major Groups of Lophotrochozoans?

695

(7)

Ectoprocts live in colonies

695

(1)

Flatworms, rotifers, and ribbon worms are structurally diverse relatives

695

(2)

Phoronids and brachiopods use lophophores to extract food from the water

697

(1)

The annelids and the mollusks are sister groups

698

(1)

Annelids have segmented bodies

698

(2)

Mollusks have undergone a dramatic evolutionary radiation

700

(2)

What Are the Major Groups of Ecdysozoans?

702

(3)

Several marine groups have relatively few species

702

(1)

Nematodes and their relatives are abundant and diverse

703

(2)

Why Do Arthropods Dominate Earth's Fauna?

705

(11)

Arthropod relatives have fleshy, unjointed appendages

705

(1)

Jointed legs first appeared in the trilobites

706

(1)

Crustaceans are diverse and abundant

706

(2)

Insects are the dominant terrestrial arthropods

708

(4)

Myriapods have many legs

712

(1)

Most chelicerates have four pairs of legs

712

(2)

An Overview of Protostome Evolution

714

(2)

Deuterostome Animals

716

(28)

What is a Deuterostome?

717

(1)

What Are the Major Groups of Echinoderms and Hemichordates?

718

(4)

Echinoderms have a water vascular system

719

(2)

Hemichordates have a three-part body plan

721

(1)

What New Features Evolved in the Chordates?

722

(6)

Adults of most urochordates and cephalochordates are sessile

722

(1)

A new dorsal supporting structure replaces the notochord in vertebrates

723

(1)

The vertebrate body plan can support large animals

724

(1)

Fins and swim bladders improved stability and control over locomotion

725

(3)

How Did Vertebrates Colonize the Land?

728

(9)

Jointed fins enhanced support for fishes

728

(1)

Amphibians adapted to life on land

728

(2)

Amniotes colonized dry environments

730

(1)

Reptiles adapted to life in many habitats

731

(1)

Crocodilians and birds share their ancestry with the dinosaurs

731

(2)

The evolution of feathers allowed birds to fly

733

(1)

Mammals radiated after the extinction of dinosaurs

734

(1)

Most mammals are therians

735

(2)

What Traits Characterize the Primates?

737

(7)

Human ancestors evolved bipedal locomotion

738

(2)

Human brains became larger as jaws became smaller

740

(1)

Humans developed complex language and culture

741

(3)

Part Seven Flowering Plants: Form and Function

The Plant Body

744

(20)

How Is the Plant Body Organized?

745

(4)

Roots anchor the plant and take up water and minerals

746

(1)

Stems bear buds, leaves, and flowers

746

(1)

Leaves are the primary sites of photosynthesis

747

(1)

The tissue systems support the plant's activities

748

(1)

How Are Plant Cells Unique?

749

(3)

Cell walls may be complex in structure

749

(1)

Parenchyma cells are alive when they perform their functions

749

(1)

Collenchyma cells provide flexible support while alive

750

(1)

Sclerenchyma cells provide rigid support

750

(1)

Cells of the xylem transport water and minerals from roots to stems and leaves

750

(2)

Cells of the phloem translocate carbohydrates and other nutrients

752

(1)

How Do Meristems Build the Plant Body?

752

(8)

Plants and animals grow differently

753

(1)

A hierarchy of meristems generates a plant's body

754

(1)

The root apical meristem gives rise to the root cap and the root primary meristems

755

(1)

The products of the root's primary meristems become root tissues

756

(1)

The products of the stem's primary meristems become stem tissues

757

(1)

Many eudicot stems and roots undergo secondary growth

758

(2)

How Does Leaf Anatomy Support Photosynthesis?

760

(4)

Transport in Plants

764

(16)

How Do Plants Take Up Water and Solutes?

765

(4)

Water moves through a membrane by osmosis

765

(2)

Aquaporins facilitate the movement of water across membranes

767

(1)

Uptake of mineral ions requires membrane transport proteins

767

(1)

Water and ions pass to the xylem by way of the apoplast and symplast

768

(1)

How Are Water and Minerals Transported in the Xylem?

769

(4)

Experiments ruled out xylem transport by the pumping action of living cells

769

(1)

Root pressure does not account for xylem transport

770

(1)

The transpiration--cohesion--tension mechanism accounts for xylem transport

770

(1)

A pressure chamber measures tension in the xylem sap

771

(2)

How Do Stomata Control the Loss of Water and the Uptake of CO2?

773

(2)

The guard cells control the size of the stomatal opening

773

(1)

Transpiration from crops can be decreased

774

(1)

How Are Substances Translocated in the Phloem?

775

(5)

The pressure flow model appears to account for translocation in the phloem

776

(1)

The pressure flow model has been experimentally tested

776

(1)

Plasmodesmata allow the transfer of material between cells

777

(3)

Plant Nutrition

780

(16)

How Do Plants Acquire Nutrients?

781

(1)

Autotrophs make their own organic compounds

781

(1)

How does a stationary organism find nutrients?

782

(1)

What Mineral Nutrients Do Plants Require?

782

(3)

Deficiency symptoms reveal inadequate nutrition

783

(1)

Several essential elements fulfill multiple roles

784

(1)

Experiments were designed to identify essential elements

784

(1)

What Are the Roles of Soil?

785

(3)

Soils are complex in structure

785

(1)

Soils form through the weathering of rock

786

(1)

Soils are the source of plant nutrition

786

(1)

Fertilizers and lime are used in agriculture

787

(1)

Plants affect soil fertility and pH

787

(1)

How Does Nitrogen Get from Air to Plant Cells?

788

(4)

Nitrogen fixers make all other life possible

788

(1)

Nitrogenase catalyzes nitrogen fixation

789

(1)

Some plants and bacteria work together to fix nitrogen

789

(1)

Biological nitrogen fixation does not always meet agricultural needs

789

(1)

Plants and bacteria participate in the global nitrogen cycle

790

(2)

Do Soil, Air, and Sunlight Meet the Needs of All Plants?

792

(4)

Carnivorous plants supplement their mineral nutrition

792

(1)

Parasitic plants take advantage of other plants

792

(4)

Regulation of Plant Growth

796

(22)

How Does Plant Development Proceed?

797

(4)

Several hormones and photoreceptors play roles in plant growth regulation

797

(1)

Signal transduction pathways are involved in all stages of plant development

798

(1)

The seed germinates and forms a growing seedling

798

(1)

The plant flowers and sets fruit

798

(1)

The plant senesces and dies

798

(1)

Not all seeds germinate without cues

799

(1)

Seed dormancy affords adaptive advantages

799

(1)

Seed germination begins with the uptake of water

800

(1)

The embryo must mobilize its reserves

800

(1)

What Do Gibberellins Do?

801

(2)

``Foolish seedling'' disease led to the discovery of the gibberellins

801

(1)

The gibberellins have many effects on plant growth and development

802

(1)

What Does Auxin Do?

803

(6)

Phototropism led to the discovery of auxin

803

(1)

Auxin transport is polar and requires carrier proteins

803

(2)

Light and gravity affect the direction of plant growth

805

(1)

Auxin affects plant growth in several ways

805

(2)

Auxin analogs as herbicides

807

(1)

Auxin promotes growth by acting on cell walls

807

(1)

Auxin and gibberellins are recognized by similar mechanisms

808

(1)

What Do Cytokinins, Ethylene, Abscisic Acid, and Brassinosteroids Do?

809

(3)

Cytokinins are active from seed to senescence

809

(1)

Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that hastens leaf senescence and fruit ripening

810

(1)

Abscisic acid is the ``stress hormone''

811

(1)

Brassinosteroids are hormones that mediate effects of light

811

(1)

How Do Photoreceptors Participate in Plant Growth Regulation?

812

(6)

Phytochromes mediate the effects of red and far-red light

812

(1)

Phytochromes have many effects on plant growth and development

813

(1)

Multiple phytochromes have different developmental roles

813

(1)

Cryptochromes, phototropins, and zeaxanthin are blue-light receptors

814

(4)

Reproduction in Flowering Plants

818

(18)

How Do Angiosperms Reproduce Sexually?

819

(6)

The flower is an angiosperm's structure for sexual reproduction

820

(1)

Flowering plants have microscopic gametophytes

821

(1)

Pollination enables fertilization in the absence of water

821

(1)

Some flowering plants practice ``mate selection''

822

(1)

A pollen tube delivers sperm cells to the embryo sac

822

(1)

Angiosperms perform double fertilization

822

(1)

Embryos develop within seeds

823

(1)

Some fruits assist in seed dispersal

824

(1)

What Determines the Transition from the Vegetative to the Flowering State?

825

(7)

Apical meristems can become inflorescence meristems

825

(1)

A cascade of gene expression leads to flowering

825

(1)

Photoperiodic cues can initiate flowering

826

(1)

Plants vary in their responses to different photoperiodic cues

826

(1)

The length of the night is the key photoperiodic cue determining flowering

827

(1)

Circadian rhythms are maintained by a biological clock

828

(1)

Photoreceptors set the biological clock

829

(1)

The flowering stimulus originates in a leaf

829

(2)

In some plants flowering requires a period of low temperature

831

(1)

How Do Angiosperms Reproduce Asexually?

832

(4)

Many forms of asexual reproduction exist

832

(1)

Vegetative reproduction has a disadvantage

833

(1)

Vegetative reproduction is important in agriculture

833

(3)

Plant Responses to Environmental Challenges

836

(18)

How Do Plants Deal with Pathogens?

837

(3)

Plants seal off infected parts to limit damage

837

(1)

Some plants have potent chemical defenses against pathogens

838

(1)

The hypersensitive response is a localized containment strategy

838

(1)

Systemic acquired resistance is a form of long-term ``immunity''

839

(1)

Some plant genes match up with pathogen genes

839

(1)

Plants develop specific immunity to RNA viruses

840

(1)

How Do Plants Deal with Herbivores?

840

(5)

Grazing increases the productivity of some plants

840

(1)

Some plants produce chemical defenses against herbivores

841

(1)

Some secondary metabolites play multiple roles

841

(1)

Some plants call for help

842

(1)

Many defenses depend on extensive signaling

842

(1)

Recombinant DNA technology may confer resistance to insects

842

(2)

Why don't plants poison themselves?

844

(1)

The plant doesn't always win

844

(1)

How Do Plants Deal with Climate Extremes?

845

(3)

Some leaves have special adaptations to dry environments

845

(1)

Plants have other adaptations to a limited water supply

846

(1)

In water-saturated soils, oxygen is scarce

846

(1)

Plants have ways of coping with temperature extremes

847

(1)

How Do Plants Deal with Salt and Heavy Metals?

848

(6)

Most halophytes accumulate salt

848

(1)

Halophytes and xerophytes have some similar adaptations

848

(1)

Some habitats are laden with heavy metals

849

(5)

Part Eight Animals: Form and Function

Physiology, Homeostasis, and Temperature Regulation

854

(20)

Why Must Animals Regulate Their Internal Environments?

855

(5)

An internal environment makes complex multicellular animals possible

855

(1)

Homeostasis requires physiological regulation

856

(1)

Physiological systems are made up of cells, tissues, and organs

857

(2)

Organs consist of multiple tissues

859

(1)

How Does Temperature Affect Living Systems?

860

(1)

Q10 is a measure of temperature sensitivity

860

(1)

Animals can acclimatize to a seasonal temperature change

861

(1)

How Do Animals Alter Their Heat Exchange with the Environment?

861

(5)

How do endotherms produce so much heat?

861

(1)

Ectotherms and endotherms respond differently to changes in temperature

862

(1)

Energy budgets reflect adaptations for regulating body temperature

863

(1)

Both ectotherms and endotherms control blood flow to the skin

864

(1)

Some fish elevate body temperature by conserving metabolic heat

864

(1)

Some ectotherms regulate heat production

865

(1)

How Do Mammals Regulate Their Body Temperatures?

866

(8)

Basal metabolic rates are correlated with body size and environmental temperature

866

(1)

Endotherms respond to cold by producing heat and reducing heat loss

867

(1)

Evaporation of water can dissipate heat, but at a cost

868

(1)

The vertebrate thermostat uses feedback information

868

(1)

Fever helps the body fight infections

869

(1)

Turning down the thermostat

870

(4)

Animal hormones

874

(22)

What Are Hormones and How Do They Work?

875

(5)

Hormones can act locally or at a distance

875

(1)

Hormonal communication arose early in evolution

876

(1)

Hormones from the head control molting in insects

876

(1)

Juvenile hormone controls development in insects

877

(1)

Hormones can be divided into three chemical groups

878

(1)

Hormone receptors are found on the cell surface or in the cell interior

878

(1)

Hormone action depends on the nature of the target cell and its receptors

879

(1)

How Do the Nervous and Endocrine Systems Interact?

880

(3)

The pituitary connects nervous and endocrine functions

880

(2)

The anterior pituitary is controlled by hypothalamic hormones

882

(1)

Negative feedback loops control hormone secretion

883

(1)

What Are the Major Mammalian Endocrine Glands and Hormones?

883

(7)

Thyroxine controls cell metabolism

883

(2)

Thyroid dysfunction causes goiter

885

(1)

Calcitonin reduces blood calcium

885

(1)

Parathyroid hormone elevates blood calcium

885

(1)

Vitamin D is really a hormone

886

(1)

PTH lowers blood phosphate levels

887

(1)

Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels

887

(1)

Somatostatin is a hormone of the brain and the gut

887

(1)

The adrenal gland is two glands in one

887

(2)

The sex steroids are produced by the gonads

889

(1)

Changes in control of sex steroid production initiate puberty

889

(1)

Melatonin is involved in biological rhythms and photoperiodicity

890

(1)

The list of hormones is long

890

(1)

How Do We Study Mechanisms of Hormone Action?

890

(6)

Hormones can be detected and measured with immunoassays

891

(1)

A hormone can act through many receptors

892

(1)

A hormone can act through different signal transduction pathways

893

(3)

Animal Reproduction

896

(24)

How Do Animals Reproduce Without Sex?

897

(2)

Budding and regeneration produce new individuals by mitosis

897

(1)

Parthenogenesis is the development of unfertilized eggs

898

(1)

How Do Animals Reproduce Sexually?

899

(7)

Gametogenesis produces eggs and sperm

899

(2)

Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg

901

(2)

Mating bring eggs and sperm together

903

(1)

A single body can function as both male and female

904

(1)

The evolution of vertebrate reproductive systems parallels the move to land

904

(1)

Reproductive systems are distinguished by where the embryo develops

905

(1)

How Do the Human Male and Female Reproductive Systems Work?

906

(7)

Male sex organs produce and deliver semen

906

(3)

Male sexual function is controlled by hormones

909

(1)

Female sex organs produce eggs, receive sperm, and nurture the embryo

909

(1)

The ovarian cycle produces a mature egg

910

(1)

The uterine cycle prepares an environment for the fertilized egg

911

(1)

Hormones control and coordinate the ovarian and uterine cycles

911

(1)

In pregnancy, hormones from the extraembryonic membranes take over

912

(1)

Childbirth is triggered by hormonal and mechanical stimuli

912

(1)

How Can Fertility Be Controlled and Sexual Health Maintained?

913

(7)

Human sexual responses have four phases

913

(1)

Humans use a variety of methods to control fertility

914

(2)

Reproductive technologies help solve problems of infertility

916

(1)

Sexual behavior transmits many disease organisms

917

(3)

Animal Development: From Genes to Organisms

920

(22)

How Does Fertilization Activate Development?

921

(5)

The sperm and the egg make different contributions to the zygote

921

(1)

Rearrangements of egg cytoplasm set the stage for determination

922

(1)

Cleavage repackages the cytoplasm

922

(1)

Cleavage in mammals is unique

923

(2)

Specific blastomeres generate specific tissues and organs

925

(1)

How Does Gastrulation Generate Multiple Tissue Layers?

926

(6)

Invagination of the vegetal pole characterizes gastrulation in the sea urchin

927

(1)

Gastrulation in the frog begins at the gray crescent

928

(1)

The dorsal lip of the blastopore organizes embryo formation

928

(1)

The molecular mechanisms of the organizer involve multiple transcription factors

929

(2)

The organizer changes its activity as it migrates from the dorsal lip

931

(1)

Reptilian and avian gastrulation is an adaptation to yolky eggs

931

(1)

Placental mammals have no yolk but retain the avian-reptilian gastrulation pattern

932

(1)

How Do Organs and Organ Systems Develop?

932

(2)

The stage is set by the dorsal lip of the blastopore

932

(1)

Body segmentation develops during neurulation

933

(1)

Hox genes control development along the anterior--posterior axis

933

(1)

What Is the Origin of the Placenta?

934

(2)

Extraembryonic membranes form with contributions from all germ layers

934

(1)

Extraembryonic membranes in mammals form the placenta

935

(1)

The extraembryonic membranes provide means of detecting genetic diseases

936

(1)

What Are the Stages of Human Development?

936

(6)

The embryo becomes a fetus in the first trimester

936

(1)

The fetus grows and matures during the second and third trimesters

937

(1)

Developmental changes continue throughout life

938

(4)

Neurons and Nervous Systems

942

(22)

What Cells Are Unique to the Nervous System?

943

(3)

Neuronal networks range in complexity

943

(1)

Neurons are the functional units of nervous systems

944

(2)

Glial cells are also important components of nervous systems

946

(1)

How Do Neurons Generate and Conduct Signals?

946

(9)

Simple electrical concepts underlie neuronal function

947

(1)

Membrane potentials can be measured with electrodes

947

(1)

Ion pumps and channels generate membrane potentials

947

(3)

Ion channels and their properties can now be studied directly

950

(1)

Gated ion channels alter membrane potential

950

(1)

Sudden changes in Na+ and K+ channels generate action potentials

951

(2)

Action potentials are conducted along axons without loss of signal

953

(1)

Action potentials can jump along axons

954

(1)

How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

955

(9)

The neuromuscular junction is a model chemical synapse

955

(1)

The arrival of an action potential causes the release of neurotransmitter

955

(1)

The postsynaptic membrane responds to neurotransmitter

956

(1)

Synapses between neurons can be excitatory or inhibitory

957

(1)

The postsynaptic cell sums excitatory and inhibitory input

957

(1)

Synapses can be fast or slow

958

(1)

Electrical synapses are fast but do not integrate information well

958

(1)

The action of a neurotransmitter depends on the receptor to which it binds

958

(1)

Glutamate receptors may be involved in learning and memory

959

(1)

To turn off responses, synapses must be cleared of neurotransmitter

960

(4)

Sensory Systems

964

(20)

How Do Sensory Cells Convert Stimuli into Action Potentials?

965

(2)

Sensory receptor proteins act on ion channels

965

(1)

Sensory transduction involves changes in membrane potentials

966

(1)

Sensation depends on which neurons receive action potentials from sensory cells

967

(1)

Many receptors adapt to repeated stimulation

967

(1)

How Do Sensory Systems Detect Chemical Stimuli?

967

(3)

Arthropods provide good examples for studying chemoreception

968

(1)

Olfaction is the sense of smell

968

(1)

The vomeronasal organ senses pheromones

969

(1)

Gustation is the sense of taste

969

(1)

How Do Sensory Systems Detect Mechanical Forces?

970

(6)

Many different cells respond to touch and pressure

970

(1)

Mechanoreceptors are found in muscles, tendons, and ligaments

971

(1)

Auditory systems use hair cells to sense sound waves

972

(2)

Hair cells provide information about displacement

974

(2)

How Do Sensory Systems Detect Light?

976

(8)

Rhodopsins are responsible for photosensitivity

976

(1)

Invertebrates have a variety of visual systems

977

(1)

Image-forming eyes evolved independently in vertebrates and cephalopods

978

(2)

The vertebrate retina receives and processes visual information

980

(4)

The Mammalian Nervous System: Structure and Higher Function

984

(20)

How Is the Mammalian Nervous System Organized?

985

(7)

A functional organization of the nervous system is based on flow and type of information

985

(1)

The vertebrate CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube

986

(1)

The spinal cord transmits and processes information

987

(1)

The reticular system alerts the forebrain

988

(1)

The core of the forebrain controls physiological drives, instincts, and emotions

988

(1)

Regions of the telencephalon interact to produce consciousness and control behavior

989

(3)

How Is Information Processed by Neuronal Networks?

992

(5)

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary physiological functions

992

(1)

Patterns of light falling on the retina are integrated by the visual cortex

992

(4)

Cortical cells receive input from both eyes

996

(1)

Can Higher Functions Be Understood in Cellular Terms?

997

(7)

Sleep and dreaming are reflected in electrical patterns in the cerebral cortex

997

(2)

Some learning and memory can be localized to specific brain areas

999

(1)

Language abilities are localized in the left cerebral hemisphere

1000

(1)

What is consciousness?

1001

(3)

Effectors: How Animals Get Things Done

1004

(20)

How Do Muscles Contract?

1005

(8)

Sliding filaments cause skeletal muscle to contract

1005

(2)

Actin--myosin interactions cause filaments to slide

1007

(1)

Actin--myosin interactions are controlled by calcium ions

1008

(2)

Cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat

1010

(1)

Smooth muscle causes slow contractions of many internal organs

1010

(2)

Single skeletal muscle twitches are summed into graded contractions

1012

(1)

What Determines Muscle Strength and Endurance?

1013

(3)

Muscle fiber types determine endurance and strength

1013

(1)

A muscle has an optimal length for generating maximum tension

1014

(1)

Exercise increases muscle strength and endurance

1014

(1)

Muscle ATP supply limits performance

1014

(2)

What Roles Do Skeletal Systems Play in Movement?

1016

(4)

A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid in a muscular cavity

1016

(1)

Exoskeletons are rigid outer structures

1016

(1)

Vertebrate endoskeletons provide supports for muscles

1017

(1)

Bones develop from connective tissues

1018

(1)

Bones that have a common joint can work as a lever

1019

(1)

What Are Some Other Kinds of Effectors?

1020

(4)

Chromatophores allow an animal to change its color or pattern

1020

(1)

Glands secrete chemicals for defense, communication, or predation

1021

(1)

Electric organs generate electricity used for sensing, communication, defense, or attack

1021

(1)

Light-emitting organs use enzymes to produce light

1021

(3)

Gas Exchange in Animals

1024

(20)

What Physical Factors Govern Respiratory Gas Exchange?

1025

(3)

Diffusion is driven by concentration differences

1025

(1)

Fick's law applies to all systems of gas exchange

1026

(1)

Air is a better respiratory medium than water

1026

(1)

High temperatures create respiratory problems for aquatic animals

1026

(1)

O2 availability decreases with altitude

1026

(1)

CO2 is lost by diffusion

1027

(1)

What Adaptations Maximize Respiratory Gas Exchange?

1028

(4)

Respiratory organs have large surface areas

1028

(1)

Transporting gases to and from the exchange surfaces optimizes partial pressure gradients

1028

(1)

Insects have airways throughout their bodies

1028

(1)

Fish gills use countercurrent flow to maximize gas exchange

1029

(1)

Birds use unidirectional ventilation to maximize gas exchange

1030

(1)

Tidal ventilation produces dead space that limits gas exchange efficiency

1031

(1)

How Do Human Lungs Work?

1032

(4)

Respiratory tract secretions aid ventilation

1034

(1)

Lungs are ventilated by pressure changes in the thoracic cavity

1034

(2)

How Does Blood Transport Respiratory Gases?

1036

(3)

Hemoglobin combines reversibly with oxygen

1036

(1)

Myoglobin holds an oxygen reserve

1037

(1)

The affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is variable

1037

(1)

Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions in the blood

1038

(1)

How is Breathing Regulated?

1039

(5)

Breathing is controlled in the brain stem

1039

(1)

Regulating breathing requires feedback information

1039

(5)

Circulatory Systems

1044

(24)

Why Do Animals Need a Circulatory System?

1045

(2)

Some animals do not have circulatory systems

1045

(1)

Open circulatory systems move extracellular fluid

1046

(1)

Closed circulatory systems circulate blood through a system of blood vessels

1046

(1)

How Have Vertebrate Circulatory Systems Evolved?

1047

(3)

Fish have two-chambered hearts

1047

(1)

Amphibians have three-chambered hearts

1048

(1)

Reptiles have exquisite control of pulmonary and systemic circulation

1048

(1)

Birds and mammals have fully separated pulmonary and systemic circuits

1049

(1)

How Does the Mammalian Heart Function?

1050

(5)

Blood flows from right heart to lungs to left heart to body

1050

(2)

The heartbeat originates in the cardiac muscle

1052

(1)

A conduction system coordinates the contraction of heart muscle

1053

(1)

Electrical properties of ventricular muscles sustain heart contraction

1054

(1)

The ECG records the electrical activity of the heart

1055

(1)

What Are the Properties of Blood and Blood Vessels?

1055

(6)

Red blood cells transport respiratory gases

1055

(1)

Platelets are essential for blood clotting

1056

(1)

Plasma is a complex solution

1056

(1)

Blood circulates throughout the body in a system of blood vessels

1057

(1)

Materials are exchanged in capillary beds by filtration, osmosis, and diffusion

1057

(2)

Blood flows back to the heart through veins

1059

(1)

Lymphatic vessels return interstitial fluid to the blood

1060

(1)

Vascular disease is a killer

1060

(1)

How Is the Circulatory System Controlled and Regulated?

1061

(7)

Autoregulation matches local blood flow to local need

1061

(1)

Arterial pressure is controlled and regulated by hormonal and neuronal mechanisms

1061

(2)

Cardiovascular control in diving mammals conserves oxygen

1063

(5)

Nutrition, Digestion, and Absorption

1068

(24)

What Do Animals Require from Food?

1069

(6)

Energy can be measured in calories

1069

(1)

Energy budgets reveal how animals use their resources

1070

(1)

Sources of energy can be stored in the body

1071

(1)

Food provides carbon skeletons for biosynthesis

1072

(1)

Animals need mineral elements for a variety of functions

1073

(1)

Animals must obtain vitamins from food

1073

(1)

Nutrient deficiencies result in diseases

1074

(1)

How Do Animals Ingest and Digest Food?

1075

(3)

The food of herbivores is often low in energy and hard to digest

1075

(1)

Carnivores must detect, capture, and kill prey

1075

(1)

Vertebrate species have distinctive teeth

1076

(1)

Animals digest their food extracellularly

1076

(1)

Tubular guts have an opening at each end

1077

(1)

Digestive enzymes break down complex food molecules

1077

(1)

How Does the Vertebrate Gastrointestinal System Function?

1078

(7)

The vertebrate gut consists of concentric tissue layers

1078

(1)

Mechanical activity moves food through the gut and aids digestion

1079

(1)

Chemical digestion begins in the mouth and the stomach

1080

(1)

What causes stomach ulcers?

1081

(1)

The stomach gradually releases its contents to the small intestine

1082

(1)

Most chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine

1082

(1)

Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine

1083

(1)

Absorbed nutrients go to the liver

1084

(1)

Water and ions are absorbed in the large intestine

1084

(1)

The problem with cellulose

1084

(1)

How Is the Flow of Nutrients Controlled and Regulated?

1085

(4)

Hormones control many digestive functions

1086

(1)

The liver directs the traffic of the molecules that fuel metabolism

1086

(1)

Regulating food intake is important

1087

(2)

How Do Animals Deal with Ingested Toxins?

1089

(3)

The body cannot metabolize many synthetic toxins

1089

(1)

Some toxins are retained and concentrated

1089

(3)

Salt and Water Balance and Nitrogen Excretion

1092

(20)

What Roles Do Excretory Organs Play in Maintaining Homeostasis?

1093

(2)

Water enters or leaves cells by osmosis

1093

(1)

Excretory organs control extracellular fluid osmolarity by filtration, secretion, and reabsorption

1094

(1)

Animals can be osmoconformers or osmoregulators

1094

(1)

Animals can be ionic conformers or ionic regulators

1095

(1)

How Do Animals Excrete Toxic Wastes from Nitrogen Metabolism?

1095

(2)

Animals excrete nitrogen in a number of forms

1095

(1)

Most species produce more than one nitrogenous waste

1096

(1)

How Do Invertebrate Excretory Systems Work?

1097

(1)

The protonephridia of flatworms excrete water and conserve salts

1097

(1)

The metanephridia of annelids process coelomic fluid

1097

(1)

The Malpighian tubules of insects depend on active transport

1098

(1)

How Do Vertebrates Maintain Salt and Water Balance?

1098

(3)

Marine fishes must conserve water

1099

(1)

Terrestrial amphibians and reptiles must avoid desiccation

1099

(1)

Birds and mammals can produce highly concentrated urine

1099

(1)

The nephron is the functional unit of the vertebrate kidney

1099

(1)

Blood is filtered in the glomerulus

1100

(1)

The renal tubules convert glomerular filtrate to urine

1101

(1)

How Does the Mammalian Kidney Produce Concentrated Urine?

1101

(6)

Kidneys produce urine and the bladder stores it

1101

(1)

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Life, Vol. I: The Cell and Heredity (Chs. 1-20)

Life, Vol. I: The Cell and Heredity (Chs. 1-20)

9780716776734

0716776731

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Table of Contents

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