Rent 9780155430648 | Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking

Table of Contents

Introduction to Arguments

(44)

Introduction

(9)

Exercise Set 1.1

... MORE

(6)

Arguments

(4)

Recognizing Arguments

(8)

Exercise Set 1.2

(5)

Extended Arguments

(2)

Exercise Set 1.3

(1)

Reconstructing Arguments

(12)

Incompletely Stated Arguments

(5)

Exercise Set 1.4

(2)

Contextual Clues for Reconstructing Arguments

(2)

Exercise Set 1.5

(3)

Review

(8)

Exercise Set 1.6

(6)

Paying Special Attention to the Language of Arguments

(23)

Introduction

(1)

Ambiguity

(4)

Exercise Set 2.1

(1)

Vagueness

(2)

Exercise Set 2.2

(1)

Definition

(12)

Ostensive Definition

(1)

Verbal Extensional Definition

(1)

Intensional Definition

(1)

Definitions that Show How a Word Is Commonly Used

(1)

Exercise Set 2.3

(1)

Definitions that Introduce a New Word into the Language

(2)

Definitions that Reduce Vagueness

(1)

Exercise Set 2.4

(1)

Definitions for Theoretical Purposes

(1)

Definitions Designed to Transfer Emotive Force

(2)

Exercise Set 2.5

(1)

Syntactic Definitions and Implicit Definition

(1)

Operational Definitions

(3)

Exercise Set 2.7

(1)

Review

(4)

Exercise Set 2.8

(3)

Deductive Arguments, Inductive Arguments, Fallacies

(29)

Introduction

(1)

Deductive Arguments

(10)

Exercise Set 3.1

(2)

Inductive Arguments

(7)

Exercise Set 3.2

(2)

Fallacies

(3)

Exercise Set 3.3

(1)

Review

(7)

Exercise Set 3.4

(6)

A Closer Look at Inductive Arguments

(53)

Introduction

(1)

Statistical Syllogisms

(18)

Form of Statistical Syllogisms

100

(1)

Standards for the Strength of Statistical Syllogisms

100

(2)

Exercise Set 4.1

102

(1)

The Fallacy of Incomplete Evidence

103

(1)

Exercise Set 4.2

104

(1)

Special Types of Statistical Syllogism

105

(1)

Arguments from Authority

105

(2)

Exercise Set 4.3

107

(1)

Arguments Against the Person (Argumentum Ad Hominem)

108

(3)

Arguments from Consensus

111

(2)

Missing Premisses in Statistical Syllogisms

113

(1)

An Incorrect Form of Inductive Argument

113

(2)

Exercise Set 4.4

115

(2)

Arguments from Analogy

117

(12)

Form of Arguments from Analogy

118

(1)

Standards for the Strength of Analogical Arguments

119

(1)

Fallacies Associated with Analogical Arguments

120

(1)

Analogy in Archaeology and in Legal and Moral Reasoning

121

(2)

Exercise Set 4.5

123

(4)

Analogy and the Slippery Slope

127

(2)

Exercise Set 4.6

129

(1)

Arguments Based on Samples

129

(11)

Preliminary Account of the Form of Arguments Based on Samples

131

(1)

Standards for the Strength of Inductive Generalizations

131

(3)

Fallacies Associated with Inductive Generalizations

134

(2)

The Revised Form of Inductive Generalization

136

(2)

Exercise Set 4.7

138

(2)

Extended Inductive Arguments

140

(1)

Pro and Con Arguments

140

(2)

Review

142

(8)

Exercise Set 4.8

144

(6)

Causal Arguments

150

(45)

Introduction

151

(1)

Mill's Method for Establishing Causal Claims

151

(16)

The Method of Agreement

152

(2)

Exercise Set 5.1

154

(1)

The Method of Difference

155

(1)

Exercise Set 5.2

156

(1)

The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

156

(3)

The Method of Concomitant Variation

159

(2)

The Method of Residues

161

(2)

Exercise Set 5.3

163

(4)

Controlled Experiments

167

(6)

Exercise Set 5.4

171

(2)

Different Uses of ``Cause''

173

(5)

Exercise Set 5.5

177

(1)

Hume's Analysis of Causation

178

(3)

Causal Fallacies

181

(8)

Confusing Coincidental Relationships with Causes (Post Hoc)

182

(1)

Ignoring a Common Cause

183

(1)

Confusing Cause and Effect

184

(2)

Genetic Fallacy: Reasons and Causes

186

(1)

Confusing the Harm or Benefits that Result from Holding a Belief with Evidence for It

187

(2)

Review

189

(6)

Exercise Set 5.6

191

(4)

Probabilities and Inductive Logic

195

(33)

Introduction

196

(4)

The Rules of Probability

200

(8)

Exercise Set 6.1

207

(1)

Decision Theory: Using Probabilities to Plan a Course of Action

208

(14)

Decisions Under Risk

209

(4)

Decisions Under Certainty

213

(1)

Decisions Under Uncertainty

214

(3)

The Prisoner's Dilemma

217

(2)

The Petersburg Paradox

219

(2)

The Law of Averages and the Gamblers' Fallacy

221

(1)

Review

222

(6)

Exercise Set 6.2

224

(4)

Deductive Reasoning: Conditional Arguments

228

(21)

Introduction

229

(1)

Properties of Deductive Arguments: Validity and the Importance of Logical Form

229

(3)

Conditional Sentences

232

(7)

The Structure of Conditionals

233

(2)

Exercise Set 7.1

235

(1)

The Truth of Conditionals

235

(3)

Exercise Set 7.2

238

(1)

Conditional Arguments

239

(4)

Affirming the Antecedent

239

(1)

Exercise Set 7.3

240

(1)

Denying the Consequent

240

(2)

Exercise Set 7.4

242

(1)

Unstated Premisses in Conditional Arguments

242

(1)

Fallacies Associated with Conditional Arguments

243

(2)

Fallacious (Invalid) Forms of Argument

243

(1)

Invalid and Fallacious Arguments

244

(1)

Review

245

(4)

Exercise Set 7.5

246

(3)

Confirmation of Hypotheses

249

(36)

Hypotheses

250

(1)

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

251

(2)

Complexities in the Hypothetico-Deductive Method

253

(11)

Auxiliary Hypotheses

253

(2)

Alternative Hypotheses

255

(2)

Form of Inductive Arguments of Confirmation

257

(2)

Confirming a Causal Hypothesis

259

(2)

Exercise Set 8-1

261

(3)

Incremental Confirmation and ``Absolute'' Confirmation

264

(2)

Exercise Set 8-2

266

(1)

Disconfirmation

266

(8)

Crucial Tests

268

(1)

Disconfirming a Causal Hypothesis

269

(2)

Exercise Set 8-3

271

(3)

Bayesian Confirmation

274

(4)

Bayes's Theorem

274

(2)

Exercise Set 8-4

276

(2)

Using Bayes's Theorem to Test Hypotheses

278

(3)

Exercise Set 8-5

280

(1)

Review

281

(4)

Exercise Set 8-6

283

(2)

Arguments in Which Validity Depends on Connections Among Sentences

285

(39)

Introduction

286

(8)

Hypothetical Syllogisms

287

(1)

Dilemmas

288

(2)

False Dilemmas

290

(1)

Disjunctive Syllogisms

291

(2)

Exercise Set 9.1

293

(1)

Symbolizing Connectives

294

(2)

Symbolizing English Sentences

296

(4)

Exercise Set 9.2

299

(1)

Determining the Truth Values of Compound Sentence Forms

300

(2)

Exercise Set 9.3

301

(1)

Determining the Validity or Invalidity of Argument Forms

302

(8)

Exercise Set 9.4

306

(4)

Tautologies, Self-Contradictions, and Contingent Sentences

310

(3)

Exercise Set 9.5

312

(1)

Logic and Computers: Application of Truth-Functional Logic

313

(8)

Representation of Numbers

314

(1)

Decimal System

314

(1)

Binary System

314

(1)

Binary Addition

315

(1)

Constructing an Adder

316

(1)

Exercise Set 9.6

316

(3)

Disjunctive Normal Forms

319

(1)

Exercise Set 9.7

320

(1)

Review

321

(3)

Categorical Syllogisms

324

(43)

Introduction

325

(1)

Categorical Sentences

326

(8)

Relationships among Categorical Sentences the Traditional Square of Opposition

327

(3)

Existential Import and the Modern Square of Opposition

330

(2)

Exercise Set 10.1

332

(2)

Translating English Sentences into Standard Categorical Forms

334

(6)

A Sentences

334

(2)

E Sentences

336

(1)

I Sentences

337

(1)

O Sentences

338

(1)

Exercise Set 10.2

339

(1)

Testing for Validity with Venn Diagrams

340

(6)

Exercise Set 10.3

345

(1)

Distribution of Terms

346

(2)

Exercise Set 10.4

348

(1)

Rules for Testing the Validity of Syllogisms

348

(7)

Three Rules for Valid Syllogisms

349

(3)

Exercise Set 10.5

352

(1)

Examples of Using the Rules to Test Validity

353

(1)

Exercise Set 10.6

354

(1)

Reducing the Number of Terms in Syllogisms

355

(3)

Exercise Set 10.7

357

(1)

Reconstructing Ordinary-Language Arguments as Syllogisms

358

(1)

Quasi-Syllogism and Sorites

359

(3)

Quasi-Syllogisms

359

(1)

Sorites

360

(1)

Exercise Set 10.8

361

(1)

Review

362

(5)

Exercise Set 10.9

364

(3)

Arguments in Which Validity Depends on Relationships

367

(19)

Introduction

368

(1)

Examples of Relational Arguments

368

(1)

Important Properties of Relationships

369

(2)

Exercise Set 11.1

371

(1)

Using Quantifiers to Express Relationships

371

(10)

Symbolizing the Universal Quantifier

372

(2)

Symbolizing the Existential Quantifier

374

(1)

Exercise Set 11.2

375

(1)

Symbolizing Relational Sentences

375

(2)

Exercise Set 11.3

377

(1)

Multiple Quantifiers

378

(1)

Exercise Set 11.4

379

(1)

The Fallacy of Every and All

379

(2)

Symbolizing Arguments

381

(2)

Review

383

(3)

Exercise Set 11.5

384

(2)

APPENDIX ONE PROOF METHOD FOR TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL LOGIC

386

(12)

I. Introduction

387

(1)

II. The Proof Method

388

(5)

Exercise Set A-1

392

(1)

III. Justifying the Rules of Inference

393

(5)

Exercise Set A-2

396

(2)

APPENDIX TWO INDEX OF FALLACIES

398

(4)

Bibliography

402

(4)

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

406

(55)

Index

461

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Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking

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