9780130983893

This book is an introduction to the history of the Muslim world for readers with little or no knowledge of the subject. It points out the unifying elements that bind together the Muslim world, but stresses the religious and political differences that prevent them from acting as a unit.This book features economic, political, intellectual, and social developments over the wide area of the Muslim world and across many centuries.For readers interested in learning the history of the Muslim world; also, for employees of corporations and businesses that trade with regions ruled by Muslim-dominated governments.

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PREFACE

xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xiii

NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND DATING

xv

PART ONE The Formative Period 610-950

1

(138)

1. ORIGINS

4

(29)

Southwestern Asia in the Seventh Century

4

(16)

The Byzantine Empire

5

(6)

The Sasanian Empire

11

(5)

The Arabian Peninsula

16

(4)

The Rise of Islam

20

(10)

The Meccan Environment

20

(2)

Muhammad

22

(5)

A Framework for a New Community

27

(3)

Conclusion

30

(1)

NOTES

31

(1)

FURTHER READING

31

(2)

2. ARAB IMPERIALISM

33

(29)

Arab Conquests

33

(11)

Arabia and the Fertile Crescent

34

(4)

Iran

38

(3)

North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula

41

(2)

Central Asia and the Indus River Valley

43

(1)

Umayyad Administration

44

(10)

The Caliphate

45

(2)

The Administration of Non-Muslims

47

(2)

The Administration of Muslims

49

(3)

The Rationalization of Society

52

(2)

Dissolution of the Arab Empire

54

(5)

Conclusion

59

(1)

NOTES

60

(1)

FURTHER READING

60

(2)

3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECTARIANISM

62

(23)

Ali and the Politics of Division

62

(7)

Political Dissension

63

(1)

Ali's Caliphate: Shi'ites and Kharijites

64

(2)

Karbala

66

(3)

The Abbasid Revott'fio

69

(3)

Shi'ite Identities

72

(8)

The Ghulat and the Zaydis

73

(1)

The Husayni Alids

74

(5)

The Shiite Movement

79

(1)

The Sunni Consensus

80

(3)

Conclusion

83

(1)

FURTHER READING

84

(1)

4. THE CENTER CANNOT HOLD: THREE CALIPHATES

85

(30)

The Abbasid Caliphat

86

(8)

The Early Period

86

(3)

Military and Economic Problems

89

(2)

The Assertion of Regional Autonomy

91

(3)

The Fatimid Caliphate

94

(4)

Isma'ili Activism

94

(2)

A Second Caliphate in the Umma

96

(2)

The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba

98

(6)

The Consolidation of Umayyad Power

99

(3)

A Third Caliphate in the Umma

102

(2)

Economic Networks

104

(7)

A Single Economy

104

(1)

Overland Trade

105

(4)

Maritime Commerce

109

(2)

Conclusion

111

(1)

NOTES

112

(1)

FURTHER READING

112

(3)

5. SYNTHESIS AND CREATIVITY

The Origins Islamic Law

115

(8)

Assimilation and Adaptation

115

(1)

Groping Toward an Islamic Jurisprudence

116

(1)

The Development of the Sharia

117

(6)

Early Sufism

123

(4)

The Contemplative Life

123

(2)

Testing the Limits of Transcendence

125

(2)

The Accommodation of Sufism

127

(1)

The Reception of Science and Philosophy

127

(6)

Science ("Natural Philosophy")

128

(2)

Philosophy

130

(3)

The Development of an Islamic Theology

133

(4)

The Reception of Rationalism

133

(2)

The Critique of Rationalism

135

(2)

Conclusion

137

(1)

NOTES

138

(1)

FURTHER READING

138

(1)

PART TWO A Civilization Under Siege, 950-1260

139

(118)

6. FILLING THE VACUUM OF POWER, 950-1100

142

(30)

The Buyid Sultanate

142

(3)

The Advent of the Turks

145

(9)

Origins

145

(3)

The Saljuq Invasion

148

(3)

The Great Saljugs and the Saljugs of Rum

151

(3)

The Fatimid Empire

154

(6)

The Conquest of Egypt and Palestine

154

(2)

Religious Policies

156

(2)

The New Egyptian Economy

158

(1)

Ominous Developments

159

(1)

The Nizaris ("Assassins")

160

(2)

The Muslim West

162

(7)

Norman Invasions of Muslim Territory

162

(1)

The "Hilali Invasion" of Ifriqiya

163

(2)

A Berber Empire

165

(1)

The Collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Andalus

166

(2)

The Incorporation of Andalus into the Maghrib

168

(1)

Conclusion

169

(1)

FURTHER READING

170

(2)

7. BARBARIANS AT THE GATES, 1100-1260

172

(27)

The Period of the Crusades

172

(10)

The First Crusade

173

(5)

The Franks on the Defensive

178

(4)

The Loss of Andalus

182

(6)

Provisional Solutions: The Great Berber Empires

182

(4)

The Disintegration of the Almohads and of Andalus

186

(2)

Realignment in the East

188

(9)

The Collapse of the Great Saljugs

190

(2)

Sunni-Nizari Rapprochement

192

(2)

The Mongol Campaigns

194

(3)

Conclusion

197

(1)

FURTHER READING

198

(1)

8. THE CONSOLIDATION OF TRADITIONS

199

(30)

Science and Philosophy

199

(6)

Mathematics and the Natural Sciences

200

(1)

Philosophy

201

(3)

The Sunni Resolution to the Tension between Reason and Revelation

204

(1)

Consolidating Institutions: Sufism

205

(9)

The Emergence of Lodges and Tarigas

206

(3)

Speculative Mysticism

209

(5)

Consolidation Institutions: Shi'ism

214

(5)

Twelver Shi'ites

214

(1)

The Isma'ilis

215

(2)

The Impact of "the Foreign Sciences" and Jurisprudence

217

(2)

The Transmission of Knowledge

219

(5)

Schools

219

(4)

The Legacy to Europe

223

(1)

ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM ARABIC

224

(2)

Conclusion

226

(1)

NOTES

227

(1)

FURTHER READING

227

(2)

9. THE MUSLIM COMMONWEALTH

229

(28)

Frontiers and Identities

230

(11)

Frontiers Defining the Dar al-Islam

230

(6)

Frontiers within the Dar al-Islam

236

(1)

Identities

237

(4)

The City and the Countryside

241

(7)

The City

241

(5)

The Countryside

246

(2)

Conversion to Islam

248

(4)

A Muslim Minority

248

(1)

The Pace of Conversion Quickens

249

(3)

The Issue of Authority in the Muslim World

252

(2)

Conclusion

254

(1)

NOTES

255

(1)

FURTHER READING

255

(2)

PART THREE Mongol Hegemony, 1260-1405

257

(62)

10. THE GREAT TRANSFORMATION

260

(30)

The Mongol Khanates

261

(8)

The Qipchaq Khanate

261

(3)

The Il-khanate

264

(3)

The Chaghatay Khanate

267

(2)

New Centers of Islamic Culture

269

(13)

The Mamluke Empire

269

(4)

The Delhi Sultanate

273

(4)

The Ottoman Sultanate

277

(5)

Scourges

282

(5)

Plague

282

(1)

Timur lang

283

(4)

Conclusion

287

(1)

FURTHER READING

288

(2)

11. UNITY AND DIVERSITY IN ISLAMIC TRADITIONS

290

(29)

Intellectual Life in the Fourteenth Century

291

(11)

The End of the "Golden Age"?

291

(2)

Against All Odds

293

(9)

Law

302

(3)

The Queen of the Sciences

302

(1)

The "Closing of the Gate of Ijtihad"?

303

(2)

The Varieties of Religious Expression

305

(11)

"Orthodoxy" and "Heterodoxy"

306

(2)

The Proliferation of Sufi Groups

308

(8)

Conclusion

316

(1)

FURTHER READING

317

(2)

GLOSSARY

319

(10)

INDEX

329

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This book is an introduction to the history of the Muslim world for readers with little or no knowledge of the subject. I use the termMuslimrather thanIslamicbecause this is a study of the history made by the Muslim peoples rather than a history of the religion of Islam: It is important to make a distinction betweenMuslimandIslamic--properly speaking,Islamicshould refer to elements of the religion, whileMuslimrelates to the adherents of the religion. Thus, not all customs followed by Muslims are Islamic, and although a mosque is an example of Islamic architecture, a palace is not. A generation ago, the great scholar Marshall Hodgson wrestled with this problem and coined the termIslamicateto describe the cultural features of Muslim societies that were not strictly religious, such as secular architecture. The term has not gained widespread acceptance, and this oak will avoid it.If the distinction betweenIslamicandMuslimseems strained, suppose that someone said that the White House is an example of Christian architecture because a Christian designed it, or that Bastille Day is a Christian holiday, since it is celebrated in a country with a Christian majority. No one is tempted to make such assertions, and yet they are equivalent to speaking ofIslamicpalaces orIslamic medicine,as many historians do. Much of the history related in this book is not directly related to Islam, and so it is more appropriately called Muslim history.The phraseMuslim world,as used in this book, refers to regions ruled by Muslim-dominated governments, as well as areas in which the Muslim population is a majority or an influential minority. For several decades in the seventh century, the Muslim world was coterminous with the region often referred to today as the Middle East, but it soon expanded far beyond that heartland. By the tenth century, many of the most important cultural developments in the Muslim world were taking place outside the Middle East. The size of the Muslim world has alternately expanded and contracted over time, and we will be concerned to see how and why that has happened.The themes of the book are tradition and adaptation. The history of any society is one of the preservation of core values and practices, but also one of adaptation to changing conditions. Muslims follow a religion that is strongly anchored in both scripture and authoritative codes of behavior and are conditioned to adhere closely to the canon of their religious tradition. On the other hand, from the very beginning Of their history, Muslims have found ways to adapt elements of their faith to their culture, as well as to adapt their cultural values and practices to the core of their faith. am is no more of a homogeneous world religion than is Christianity or Judaism.The themes of tradition and adaptation allow us to make sense of some import issues in Muslim history. By being aware of the premium placed on faithfulness the scriptures, we can understand more clearly how Muslims were able to maintain a common sense of identity throughout the wide expanse of the world in which they settled. Further, we can more readily appreciate why Muslims have accepted certain features of alien cultures and rejected others. From the first century of the Islamic calendar, when Muslims were having to decide how to administer a huge majority of non-Muslims in the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, until today, when many Muslims are concerned about the impact of a secular, global economy on their heritage, the tension between adherence to tradition on the one hand and adaptation to changing conditions on the other has been at the center of Muslim concerns.This book treats economic, political, intellectual, and social developments over a wide area and across many centuries. Of these topics, the intellectual and political developments receive more attention than

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A History of the Muslim World to 1405: The Making of a Civilization

A History of the Muslim World to 1405: The Making of a Civilization

0130983896

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