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Environmental Science and Engineering

ISBN: 9780131206502 | 0131206508
Edition: 2nd
Format: Paperback
Publisher: Prentice Hall
Pub. Date: 3/11/1996

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SummaryTable of Contents
For one-term, undergraduate-level courses in Environmental Engineering, Pollution Control, Environmental Control, Human Environmental Systems, and Environmental Management. Focused on current environmental problems, their causes, effects, and solutions, this text explores the basic nature of the natural systems. Using a technical (quantitative) approach unusual for a book at the introductory level it maintains a broad perspective that appeals to all students, but at the same time is useful to those proceeding further in environmental or sanitar... MORE
... MORE
PREFACExvi(2)
ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORSxviii
Part I Causes of Environmental Problems1(141)
1 THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
1(13)
Gary W. Heinke
1.1 What This Book Is About
1(1)
1.2 Some Important Definitions
2(1)
1.3 Interaction of Systems
2(1)
1.4 Environmental Disturbances
3(4)
1.5 Public Awareness and Action
7(2)
1.6 The Changing Role of Technology
9(2)
1.6.1 Sustainable Development
9(1)
1.6.2 Preventive Technology
10(1)
1.7 Quantification of Environmental Issues
11(1)
Problems
11(1)
References
12(2)
2 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
14(35)
Gary W. Heinke
2.1 Introduction
14(1)
2.2 Population Growth
15(15)
2.2.1 The Nature of Population Growth
15(2)
2.2.2 Population Growth in More Developed and Less Developed Regions
17(5)
2.2.3 Population Parameters
22(3)
2.2.4 Population Projections and Methods
25(4)
2.2.5 Momentum of World Population Growth
29(1)
2.3 Industrialization
30(6)
2.3.1 Measures of Economic Growth and Industrialization
31(4)
2.3.2 Technology of Production
35(1)
2.4 Urbanization
36(4)
2.4.1 Definition of Urbanization
37(1)
2.4.2 Growth of Cities
38(2)
2.5 Environmental Impact
40(4)
2.6 The Dilemma of Industrialization and Urbanization
44(2)
Problems
46(1)
References
47(2)
3 ENERGY GROWTH
49(36)
O. J. C. Runnalls
Donald Mackay
3.1 Sources of Primary Energy
50(2)
3.2 Current Consumption of Energy
52(8)
3.3 Future Consumption and Availability of Energy Sources
60(4)
3.4 Environmental Impacts of Energy Development
64(5)
3.5 Environmental Impact Matrices
69(9)
3.5.1 Environmental Impacts of Oil
70(2)
3.5.2 Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas
72(1)
3.5.3 Environmental Impacts of Coal
73(2)
3.5.4 Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Development
75(1)
3.5.5 Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Power
76(2)
3.6 Case Study: Canada's Energy Situation
78(4)
Problems
82(2)
References
84(1)
4 NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
85(26)
Ian Burton
4.1 Introduction
85(1)
4.2 Classification and Measurement of Natural Hazards
86(3)
4.3 What is a Natural Hazard?
89(3)
4.4 Extreme Events and Environmental Change
92(1)
4.5 Impacts and Trends
93(5)
4.6 Adjustments and Their Classification
98(6)
4.6.1 Preindustrial Approach
98(1)
4.6.2 Industrial Approach
98(3)
4.6.3 Postindustrial Approach
101(2)
4.6.4 Classification
103(1)
4.7 A Theoretical Perspective: Future Possible Responses
104(3)
Problems
107(1)
References
108(3)
5 HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCES
111(31)
F. Kenneth Hare
Thomas C. Hutchinson
5.1 Overview
111(2)
5.2 The Greenhouse Effect and Ozone Depletion: Global Issues
113(9)
5.2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases
113(2)
5.2.2 Effects of Greenhouse Gas Buildup
115(4)
5.2.3 The Ozone Depletion Problem
119(1)
5.2.4 Control Measures: The Climate Change Convention
120(2)
5.3 Acid Rain: A Regional Issue
122(15)
5.3.1 The Nature of the Problem
122(1)
5.3.2 Sources and Distribution of Acid Rain
122(1)
5.3.3 Effects of Acid Rain on Aquatic Systems
123(6)
5.3.4 Effects of Acid Rain on Terrestrial Ecosystems
129(4)
5.3.5 Effects of Acid Rain on Groundwater, Materials, and Buildings
133(2)
5.3.6 Remedial and Control Measures
135(2)
5.4 Lessons Learned
137(1)
5.5 Epilogue
138(1)
Problems
139(1)
References
140(2)
Part 2 Scientific Background142(195)
6 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
142(74)
Gary W. Heinke
J. Glynn Henry
6.1 Introduction
142(1)
6.2 Particle Dispersion
142(8)
6.2.1 Particle Size, Shape, and Distribution
143(2)
6.2.2 Colloidal Dispersions
145(1)
6.2.3 Methods of Expressing Particle Concentrations
146(1)
6.2.4 Settling of a Particle In a Fluid
147(3)
6.3 Solutions
150(19)
6.3.1 Solutions and Solubility
150(2)
6.3.2 Methods of Expressing the Composition of Solutions
152(6)
6.3.3 Acid-Base Reactions
158(11)
6.4 Gases, Gaseous Mixtures, and Gas Liquid Transfer
169(10)
6.4.1 Gas Laws
169(6)
6.4.2 Gas Liquid Transfer
175(4)
6.5 Material Balances
179(10)
6.5.1 Concept of Material Balance
179(4)
6.5.2 Guidelines for Making Material Balances
183(1)
6.5.3 Examples of Material Balances
184(5)
6.6 Reaction Kinetics and Reactors
189(19)
6.6.1 Reaction Kinetics
189(6)
6.6.2 Types of Reactors
195(8)
6.6.3 Determination of Reaction Rates
203(2)
6.6.4 Principles of Reactor Design
205(3)
Problems
208(7)
References
215(1)
7 ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES
216(38)
F. Kenneth Hare
7.1 Introduction
216(1)
7.2 Basic Atmospheric Properties
217(4)
7.2.1 Composition and Physical State
217(2)
7.2.2 Thermal and Electrical State
219(2)
7.3 Energy Outputs and Inputs
221(8)
7.3.1 Solar Radiation
221(2)
7.3.2 Terrestrial Radiation
223(1)
7.3.3 Surface Radiation Balance
224(4)
7.3.4 Energy Use at the Surface
228(1)
7.4 Wind, Stability, and Turbulence
229(6)
7.4.1 Motion of the Lower Atmosphere
229(3)
7.4.2 Turbulence and Stability
232(3)
7.5 Water in the Atmosphere
235(7)
7.5.1 Humidity and Precipitation
235(3)
7.5.2 The Hydrologic Cycle
238(4)
7.6 Climate
242(8)
7.6.1 World Distribution
242(3)
7.6.2 Climatic Variability
245(1)
7.6.3 The Climatic System
246(1)
7.6.4 Urban Climates
247(3)
Problems
250(2)
References
252(2)
8 MICROBIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY
254(49)
Gary W. Heinke
8.1 Introduction
254(1)
8.2 Fundamentals of Microbiology
255(16)
8.2.1 Classification of Microorganisms
255(1)
8.2.2 Bacteria
256(4)
8.2.3 Growth and Death of Bacteria
260(5)
8.2.4 Viruses, Algae, Fungi, and Protozoa
265(6)
8.3 Applied Microbiology
271(7)
8.3.1 Soil and Solid Waste Microbiology
271(2)
8.3.2 Water and Wastewater Microbiology and Indicator Organisms
273(2)
8.3.3 Atmospheric and Indoor Air Microbiology
275(3)
8.4 Epidemiology and Disease
278(14)
8.4.1 Sanitation and Health
278(1)
8.4.2 Pathogens
279(4)
8.4.3 Waterborne Diseases and Water Quality
283(5)
8.4.4 Airborne Diseases
288(2)
8.4.5 Insect- and Rodent-borne Diseases
290(2)
8.5 Noninfectious Diseases
292(7)
8.5.1 Inorganic Contaminants
293(4)
8.5.2 Organic Contaminants
297(1)
8.5.3 Safe Limits
298(1)
Problems
299(2)
References
301(2)
9 ECOLOGY
303(34)
Thomas C. Hutchinson
9.1 Introductory Concepts
303(1)
9.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems
304(7)
9.2.1 Estimates of Primary Production
306(2)
9.2.2 Comparison of Primary Productivity in Different World Ecosystems
308(2)
9.2.3 Energy Flow in Ecosystems beyond Primary Producers
310(1)
9.3 Food Chain and Trophic Levels
311(2)
9.4 Nutrient Cycles
313(7)
9.4.1 Carbon Cycle
313(1)
9.4.2 Nitrogen Cycle
314(2)
9.4.3 Phosphorus Cycle
316(4)
9.5 Elements of Limnology
320(6)
9.5.1 Quantity and Quality of Water
321(1)
9.5.2 Biotic Communities
321(1)
9.5.3 Light in Lakes
322(2)
9.5.4 Temperature and Vertical Stratification of Lakes
324(2)
9.6 Eutrophication
326(8)
9.6.1 The Problem
326(1)
9.6.2 Physical Chemical and Biological Changes
327(1)
9.6.3 Control of Eutrophication
328(1)
9.6.4 Case Study: The Great Lakes
329(4)
9.6.5 A New Challenge: Coastal Estuaries
333(1)
Problems
334(1)
References
335(2)
Part 3 Technology and Control337(393)
10 WATER RESOURCES
337(46)
J. Glynn Henry
10.1 Introduction
337(1)
10.2 Water Resources Management
338(3)
10.2.1 Importance of Water
338(1)
10.2.2 Need for Control
339(1)
10.2.3 Objectives in Water Resources Management
340(1)
10.3 Technological Considerations
341(13)
10.3.1 Properties of Water
341(1)
10.3.2 Annual Precipitation
342(1)
10.3.3 Quantity of Water Available
343(4)
10.3.4 Water Use
347(2)
10.3.5 Options for Meeting Water Demands
349(3)
10.3.6 Quantifying Ecological and Social Effects
352(2)
10.4 Planning Requirements
354(7)
10.4.1 Purpose of Planning
354(1)
10.4.2 Stages in the Planning Process
355(1)
10.4.3 Formulation of the Study
355(2)
10.4.4 Evaluation of Alternatives and Their Effects
357(4)
10.4.5 Adoption of a Plan
361(1)
10.5 Legislative Controls
361(2)
10.6 Political Influences
363(5)
10.6.1 Pressure Groups
363(2)
10.6.2 Management Policies
365(3)
10.7 Future Challenges
368(3)
10.8 Case Studies
371(8)
10.8.1 The Peripheral Canal
371(5)
10.8.2 The Occoquan Watershed
376(3)
Problems
379(2)
References
381(2)
11 WATER SUPPLY
383(38)
Gary W. Heinke
11.1 Introduction
383(1)
11.2 Water Quantity Requirements
384(5)
11.2.1 Water Demand
384(2)
11.2.2 Fluctuations in Water Use
386(3)
11.3 Water Quality Requirements
389(3)
11.3.1 Water Quality Standards
389(1)
11.3.2 Physical Characteristics
390(2)
11.3.3 Chemical Characteristics
392(1)
11.4 Sources of Water
392(3)
11.4.1 Groundwater
392(2)
11.4.2 Surface Water
394(1)
11.4.3 Seawater
395(1)
11.4.4 Reclaimed Wastewater
395(1)
11.5 Water Treatment Processes
395(14)
11.5.1 Water Treatment Plants
395(2)
11.5.2 Removal of Particulate Matter
397(8)
11.5.3 Disinfection
405(2)
11.5.4 Removal of Dissolved Substances
407(2)
11.6 Transmission, Distribution, and Storage of Water
409(6)
11.6.1 Transmission
409(1)
11.6.2 Distribution
410(1)
11.6.3 Storage
411(4)
11.7 Future Needs and Development
415(1)
Problems
416(4)
References
420(1)
12 WATER POLLUTION
421(71)
J. Glynn Henry
12.1 Introduction
421(1)
12.2 Wastewater
422(9)
12.2.1 Constituents
422(3)
12.2.2 BOD Measurement
425(2)
12.2.3 Municipal Wastewater
427(1)
12.2.4 Industrial Wastewater
428(1)
12.2.5 Stormwater
428(3)
12.3 Pollution of Receiving Waters
431(5)
12.3.1 Effects of Pollutants
431(2)
12.3.2 Water Quality Requirements
433(2)
13.3.3 Need for Pollution Control
435(1)
12.4 Wastewater Collection
436(4)
12.4.1 Early Systems
436(1)
12.4.2 Present Systems
436(2)
12.4.3 Pollution from Combined Sewer Overflows
438(2)
12.5 Principles of Wastewater Treatment
440(11)
12.5.1 Effluent Requirements
440(1)
12.5.2 Treatment Processes
440(10)
12.5.3 Selection of Treatment Method
450(1)
12.6 Land-Based Treatment Methods
451(5)
12.6.1 Land Application Systems
451(1)
12.6.2 Impoundment Systems
452(4)
12.7 Wastewater Treatment Plants
456(25)
12.7.1 Suspended-Growth Systems
457(4)
12.7.2 Suspended Growth Kinetics
461(9)
12.7.3 Fixed Film Processes
470(4)
12.7.4 Sludge Processing
474(5)
12.7.5 Residuals Disposal
479(2)
12.7.6 Odor Problems
481(1)
12.8 On-Site Treatment Facilities
481(3)
12.8.1 Waterless Systems
482(1)
12.8.2 Septic Tanks
482(1)
12.8.3 Package Plants
483(1)
12.9 Government/Public Role in Pollution Control
484(2)
12.9.1 Government Subsidies
484(1)
12.9.2 Direct Regulation
485(1)
12.9.3 Municipal Bylaws
485(1)
12.9.4 Public Involvement
485(1)
12.10 Trends in Controlling Water Pollution
486(1)
Problems
487(4)
References
491(1)
13 AIR POLLUTION
492(75)
William J. Moroz
13.1 Air Pollution in Perspective
492(6)
13.1.1 Introduction
492(1)
13.1.2 Air Pollution Episodes
493(2)
13.1.3 The Los Angeles Smog
495(2)
13.1.4 Global and Regional Pollutants
497(1)
13.1.5 The Principal Atmospheric Pollutants
497(1)
13.2 Effects of Air Pollution
498(8)
13.2.1 Health Effects
498(4)
13.2.2 Effects on Plants and Animals
502(1)
13.2.3 Effects on Materials and Services
503(1)
13.2.4 Ambient Air Quality Standards
503(3)
13.3 Sources of Air Pollution
506(15)
13.3.1 Identifying Air Pollutants
506(2)
13.3.2 Natural Sources
508(2)
13.3.3 Domestic Sources
510(1)
13.3.4 Commercial Sources
511(1)
13.3.5 Agricultural Sources
512(1)
13.3.6 Industrial Sources
513(4)
13.3.7 Transportation-related Sources
517(4)
13.4 Control of Air Pollution
521(27)
13.4.1 Natural Cleansing of the Atmosphere
521(1)
13.4.2 Air Quality Control
522(1)
13.4.3 Particle Emission Control
523(13)
13.4.4 Gas Emission Control
536(2)
13.4.5 Flow Diagrams for Typical Recovery Processes
538(8)
13.4.6 Nitrogen Oxide Emission Control
546(1)
13.4.7 Ambient Air Quality Control by Dilution
547(1)
13.5 Predicting Air Pollutant Concentrations
548(11)
13.5.1 Air Pollution Meteorology
548(4)
13.5.2 Pollution Dispersion Models
552(4)
13.5.3 Plume Rise Models
556(2)
13.5.4 Other Pollutant Dispersion Models and the Accuracy of Predictions
558(1)
13.6 Air Pollution Control Costs
559(1)
13.6.1 Coal-Fired Power Plant
559(1)
13.6.2 Automobile Emissions Control Costs
560(1)
Problems
560(5)
References
565(2)
14 SOLID WASTES
567(53)
J. Glynn Henry
14.1 Introduction
567(1)
14.2 Characteristics of Solid Wastes
568(9)
14.2.1 What is Solid Waste?
568(1)
14.2.2 Changes in Municipal Solid Waste
569(2)
14.2.3 Quantities
571(1)
14.2.4 Characteristics
572(5)
14.3 Considerations in Solid Waste Management
577(4)
14.3.1 Protection of Public Health and the Environment
577(1)
14.3.2 Source Reduction
578(1)
14.3.3 Recycling
578(2)
14.3.4 Recovery of Energy
580(1)
14.4 Collection Systems
581(5)
14.4.1 Ease and Frequency of Pickup
581(1)
14.4.2 Collection Equipment
582(1)
14.4.3 Transfer Stations
583(1)
14.4.4 Rail Haul
584(1)
14.4.5 Route Selection
585(1)
14.5 Separation and Processing of MSW
586(4)
14.5.1 At-Source Separation and Processing
586(1)
14.5.2 Central Separation and Processing
587(3)
14.6 Conversion of MSW
590(6)
14.6.1 Incineration
590(5)
14.6.2 Composting
595(1)
14.6.3 Other Conversion Processes
596(1)
14.7 Landfilling
596(13)
14.7.1 Design Criteria for Sanitary Landfills
597(1)
14.7.2 Problems with Landfilling
598(2)
14.7.3 Leachate Generation Control and Treatment
600(8)
14.7.4 Gas Production
608(1)
14.8 Future Opportunities
609(3)
14.8.1 Legislation
610(1)
14.8.2 Collection
610(1)
14.8.3 Incineration
610(1)
14.8.4 Landfilling
611(1)
Problems
612(5)
References
617(3)
15 HAZARDOUS WASTES
620(65)
J. Glynn Henry
O. J. C. Runnalls
15.1 Introduction
620(2)
15.2 Nuclear Wastes
622(14)
15.2.1 Health and Environmental Effects
622(6)
15.2.2 Nuclear Wastes from Uranium Mining and Processing
628(1)
15.2.3 Nuclear Wastes from Power Reactors
629(2)
15.2.4 Management of Nuclear Wastes
631(5)
15.2.5 Decommissioning of Nuclear Power Reactors
636(1)
15.2.6 Concluding Remarks
636(1)
15.3 Biomedical Wastes
636(2)
15.3.1 Types of Waste
636(1)
15.3.2 Control of Biomedical Wastes
637(1)
15.4 Chemical Wastes
638(2)
15.4.1 Need for Control
638(1)
15.4.2 Environmental Effects
638(2)
15.5 Identifying a Hazardous Waste
640(5)
15.5.1 Methods
640(1)
15.5.2 United States Practice
641(4)
15.6 Hazardous Waste Management
645(6)
15.6.1 Quantities of Hazardous Wastes Generated
646(3)
15.6.2 Components of a Hazardous Waste Management Plan
649(1)
15.6.3 Hazardous Waste Minimization
650(1)
15.7 Treatment and Disposal of Chemical Wastes
651(14)
15.7.1 Treatment and Disposal by Industry
651(2)
15.7.2 Off-Site Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal
653(1)
15.7.3 Quantities to Be Landfilled
654(2)
15.7.4 Practices in Western Europe and the United Kingdom
656(6)
15.7.5 Practices in North America
662(3)
15.8 The Secure Landfill
665(5)
15.8.1 Function
665(1)
15.8.2 Acceptable Wastes
665(1)
15.8.3 Site Selection and Approval
666(1)
15.8.4 Design and Construction
667(1)
15.8.5 Problems
668(2)
15.9 Treatment and Disposal of Leachate
670(1)
15.9.1 Combined Treatment
670(1)
15.9.2 Separate Treatment
670(1)
15.10 Site Remediation
671(6)
15.10.1 Remedial Techniques
673(3)
15.10.2 Case Study: Remediation at the Seymour, Indiana, Superfund Site
676(1)
15.11 Future Challenges
677(2)
Problems
679(3)
References
682(3)
16 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
685(45)
R. Ted Munn
Gary W. Heinke
J. Glynn Henry
16.1 Introduction
685(1)
16.2 Sustainable Development
686(1)
16.3 Environmental Impact Assessment
687(13)
16.3.1 Historical Perspective
687(2)
16.3.2 Elements of the Environmental Impact Assessment Process
689(3)
16.3.3 Design of an Environmental Impact Assessment
692(3)
16.3.4 International EIAs
695(1)
16.3.5 Conclusions
695(1)
16.3.6 Case Study: Atmospheric Component of an EIA for a Coal-Fired Power Station
696(4)
16.4 Pollution Control Strategies
700(15)
16.4.1 Economic Aspects
700(1)
16.4.2 Ambient and Effluent Standards
701(1)
16.4.3 Regulations for Controlling Environmental Pollution
702(7)
16.4.4 Case Study: Toxic Chemical Wastes--The Niagara River Problem
709(6)
16.5 Environmental Ethics
715(11)
16.5.1 Ethics in Society
715(1)
16.5.2 Environmental Consequences
716(1)
16.5.3 Responsibility for Environmental Degradation
717(1)
16.5.4 Ethical Theories and Codes of Ethics
718(1)
16.5.5 Ethical Problem Solving
719(3)
16.5.6 Changing Attitudes
722(2)
16.5.7 Conclusions
724(2)
Problems
726(2)
References
728(2)
Appendix A SYMBOLS, DIMENSIONS, AND UNITS730(18)
Appendix B PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS748(7)
Appendix C ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS755(3)
Appendix D SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS758(3)
INDEX761

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