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Table of Contents

Introduction

Off to an Early Start

Presentation of Statistical Material

About the End-of-Chapter Exercises

About the Model Literature Reviews

xii

Contactin... MORE

xii

Part A Getting Started

(88)

Selecting Tentative Topics for Empirical Research

(10)

Everyday Observations As a Source of Research Topics

(1)

Theories As a Source of Research Topics

(1)

Availability of Participants and Topic Selection

(1)

Ethical Considerations in Topic Selection

(1)

The Audience's Expectations Regarding Topics

(1)

Personal Needs and Topic Selection

(1)

Published Research As a Source of Topics

(2)

Using Demographics to Narrow a Topic

(1)

Using Demographics to Make a Topic More Complex

(1)

Staying Open to Other Topics

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 1

(3)

Locating Literature and Refining a Research Topic

(6)

Identifying Appropriate Databases

(1)

Using a Database Thesaurus

(1)

Using Boolean Operators (Not, And, and Or) to Refine a Search

(1)

Searching for Theoretical Literature

(1)

Searching for an Exact Phrase Match

(1)

Searching in Only the Title and/or Abstract Fields

(1)

Using a Citation Index

(1)

Locating Statistics at www.FedStats.gov

(1)

Using a Coding System When Reading the Literature

(1)

Considering Literature When Selecting and Refining Topics

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 2

(2)

Preparing a Literature Review

(10)

Preparing a Table That Shows the Key Features of Each Article

(2)

Writing an Essay About the Literature

(1)

Naming a Specific Topic Near the Beginning of a Review

(1)

Writing a Critical Literature Review

(2)

Avoiding Statements of ``Facts'' and ``Truths''

(1)

Pointing Out Gaps in the Literature

(1)

Using Subheadings in a Long Review

(1)

Placement of Surnames for In-Text Citations

(1)

Explicit Discussions of Relevant Theories

(1)

Relationship of the Review to the Research Questions, Purposes, or Hypotheses

(1)

Using the Model Literature Reviews at the End of This Book

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 3

(2)

Writing Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions

(6)

Writing Research Hypotheses

(1)

Writing Research Purposes

(1)

Writing Research Questions

(1)

Identifying Populations in Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions

(1)

Referring to Measurement Methods in Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions

(1)

Concluding Comments

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 4

(2)

Selecting a Research Approach

(10)

Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research

(1)

Major Types of Nonexperimental Research

(4)

Causal--Comparative Research

(1)

Surveys

(1)

Correlational Studies

(1)

Document/Content-Analysis Research

(1)

Program Evaluation: A Hybrid

(1)

Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research

(3)

Exercise for Chapter 5

(2)

Looking Ahead to Participant Selection

(6)

Determining the Number of Participants to Use

(1)

Random Sampling for Quantitative Research

(1)

Stratified Sampling for Quantitative Research

(1)

Convenience Sampling for Quantitative and Qualitative Research

(1)

Purposive Sampling for Qualitative Research

(1)

Using Literature When Making Plans for Participant Selection

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 6

(2)

Looking Ahead to Instrumentation

(8)

Using Instruments Employed in Previous Research

(1)

Locating Existing Instruments

(1)

Issues in Devising New Instruments

(1)

Validity of Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

(1)

Reliability of Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

(1)

Credibility of Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

(1)

Dependability of Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 7

(3)

Looking Ahead to Data Analysis for Quantitative Research

(10)

Analysis of Nominal Data

(2)

Percentages

(1)

Chi Square

(1)

Analysis of Group Differences on Interval Variables

(3)

Means and Standard Deviations for One Group

(1)

Means and Standard Deviations for Two or More Groups

(1)

t Test for Two Means

(1)

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for More Than Two Means

(1)

Analysis of Change on Interval Variables

(1)

Analysis for the Relationship Between Two Interval Variables

(1)

Concluding Comments

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 8

(3)

Looking Ahead to Data Analysis for Qualitative Research

(8)

The Intermingling of Data Collection and Data Analysis

(1)

Selecting a General Approach to Data Analysis

(2)

The Grounded Theory Approach

(1)

Consensual Qualitative Approach

(1)

Specific Techniques for Analysis of Qualitative Data

(4)

Enumeration

(1)

Selecting Quotations

(1)

Intercoder Agreement

(1)

Diagramming

(1)

Peer Debriefing

(1)

Auditing

(1)

Member Checks

(1)

Identifying the Range of Responses

(1)

Discrepant Case Analysis

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 9

(2)

Preparing a Preliminary Research Proposal

(12)

The Title of a Proposal

(1)

The Introduction and Literature Review

(2)

The Introduction and Literature Review in Qualitative Research

(1)

The Method Section of a Proposal

(4)

Participants

(1)

Instrumentation

(3)

Procedures

(1)

The Analysis Section of a Proposal

(1)

The Discussion Section of a Proposal

(1)

References at the End of a Proposal

(1)

The Major Components of a Proposal

(1)

Concluding Comments

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 10

(2)

Part B Issues in Participant Selection

(20)

Participant Selection in Quantitative Research

(8)

Populations and Bias in Sampling

(1)

Simple Random Sampling

(1)

Stratified Random Sampling

(1)

Systematic Sampling

(1)

Cluster Sampling

(1)

Sample Size in Quantitative Research

(2)

Potential for Harm to Participants

(1)

The Need for Pilot Studies

(1)

Number of Subgroups to Be Examined

(1)

Importance of Precise Results

(1)

Statistical Significance

(1)

A Table of Suggested Sample Sizes

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 11

(2)

Participant Selection in Qualitative Research

(10)

Purposive Sampling

(5)

Criterion Sampling

(1)

Random Purposive Sampling

100

(1)

Typical Case Sampling

100

(1)

Extreme or Deviant Sampling

101

(1)

Intensity Sampling

101

(1)

Maximum Variation Sampling

102

(1)

Homogeneous Sampling

102

(1)

Opportunistic Sampling

102

(1)

Stratified Purposive Sampling

103

(1)

Snowball Sampling

103

(1)

Combination Purposive Sampling

104

(1)

Improving Convenience Sampling

104

(2)

Sample Size in Qualitative Research

106

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 12

107

(2)

Part C Issues in Instrumentation

109

(26)

Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

111

(10)

Standardization and Objectivity of Instrumentation

111

(1)

Social Desirability

111

(1)

Reliability and Internal Consistency

111

(3)

The Concept of Reliability in Measurement

111

(1)

Test-Retest Reliability

112

(1)

Internal Consistency

113

(1)

Comparison of Test--Retest and Internal Consistency Methods

113

(1)

Interobserver Reliability

114

(1)

Validity and Its Relationship to Reliability

114

(1)

Judgmental Validity

115

(1)

Content Validity

115

(1)

Face Validity

115

(1)

Criterion-Related Validity

116

(1)

Construct Validity

117

(2)

Distinguishing Between Construct Validity and Criterion-Related Validity

119

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 13

119

(2)

Writing Objective Instruments

121

(8)

Attitude Scales

121

(2)

Planning an Attitude Scale

121

(1)

Writing an Attitude Scale

122

(1)

Pilot Testing an Attitude Scale

123

(1)

Observation Checklists

123

(2)

Planning an Observation Checklist

123

(1)

Writing Observation Checklists

124

(1)

Pilot Testing an Observation Checklist

124

(1)

Achievement Tests

125

(1)

Planning an Achievement Test

125

(1)

Writing Achievement Test Items

125

(1)

Pilot Testing an Achievement Test

126

(1)

Concluding Comments

126

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 14

127

(2)

Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

129

(6)

Issues in Interviewer Selection and Behavior

129

(1)

Matching Interviewers and Participants

129

(1)

Interviewer Self-Disclosure

130

(1)

Devising Interview Protocols

130

(4)

Semi-Structured, Open-Ended Interviews

131

(1)

Initial Questions to Establish Rapport

131

(1)

Using Previously Developed Interview Protocols

131

(1)

Having Interview Protocols Reviewed

132

(1)

Pilot Testing Interview Protocols

132

(1)

Formulating Questions about Demographics

132

(1)

Recording Responses and Note Taking

133

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 15

134

(1)

Part D Techniques for Data Analysis

135

(34)

Descriptive Statistics for Quantitative and Qualitative Research

137

(10)

Describing Nominal Data

137

(1)

Describing Ordinal Data

138

(1)

Describing Ratio and Interval Data

139

(5)

The Mean and Median

139

(2)

The Standard Deviation and Interquartile Range

141

(3)

Exercise for Chapter 16

144

(3)

Correlational Statistics for Quantitative Research

147

(6)

Describing the Strength of a Relationship

149

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 17

150

(3)

Inferential Statistics for Quantitative Research

153

(8)

Margins of Error

153

(1)

The Null Hypothesis

154

(1)

The Chi Square Test

155

(1)

The t Test

156

(1)

The t Test for Means

156

(1)

The t Test for Correlation Coefficients

157

(1)

The F Test (ANOVA)

157

(2)

Statistical Versus Practical Significance

159

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 18

159

(2)

A Closer Look at Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

161

(8)

Self-Disclosure and Bracketing in Data Analysis

161

(1)

A Closer Look at the Grounded Theory Approach

162

(2)

A Closer Look at Consensual Qualitative Approach

164

(2)

Exercise for Chapter 19

166

(3)

Part E Conducting Experiments

169

(26)

Introduction to Experimentation and Threats to External Validity

171

(8)

Controlling the Hawthorne Effect in Experimentation

171

(1)

Using Multiple Independent and Dependent Variables

172

(1)

External Validity of Experiments

173

(3)

Selection Bias

173

(1)

Reactive Effects of Experimental Arrangements

174

(1)

Reactive Effects of Testing

175

(1)

Obtrusiveness of Measurement

175

(1)

Multiple-Treatment Interference

176

(1)

Concluding Comments about External Validity

176

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 20

176

(3)

Threats to Internal Validity and True Experiments

179

(8)

History

179

(1)

Controlling History with a True Experiment

180

(1)

Maturation

180

(1)

Instrumentation

181

(1)

Testing

181

(1)

Statistical Regression

181

(1)

Selection

182

(1)

True Experimental Designs

183

(1)

Concluding Comments

184

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 21

184

(3)

Pre-Experiments and Quasi-Experiments

187

(8)

Pre-Experiments

187

(5)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

189

(3)

Concluding Comments

192

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 22

192

(3)

Part F Putting It Together

195

(10)

Writing Reports of Empirical Research

197

(8)

The Abstract

198

(1)

The Introduction and Literature Review

198

(1)

The Method Section

199

(1)

The Results Section

199

(2)

The Discussion Section

201

(2)

References

203

(1)

Exercise for Chapter 23

203

(2)

Appendix A Increasing the Response Rates to Mailed Surveys

205

(2)

Appendix B A Closer Look at Interpreting Correlation Coefficients

207

(4)

Appendix C Alternative Approaches to Qualitative Research

211

(4)

Appendix D An Overview of Program Evaluation

215

(4)

Appendix E Ethical Issues in Conducting Research

219

(2)

References

221

(6)

Model Literature Review 1 Happiness of Mexican Americans

227

(4)

Model Literature Review 2 Factors Influencing Evaluations of Web Site Information

231

(4)

Model Literature Review 3 The Significance of Parental Depressed Mood for Young Adolescents' Emotional and Family Experiences

235

(4)

Table 1: Table of Random Numbers

239

(1)

Table 2: Table of Recommended Sample Sizes

240

(1)

Index

241

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