Rent 9780205485840 | Classroom Assessment : Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction

Summary Table of Contents

This book provides prospective and current teachers with a concise, non-technical, and practical guide to conducting a full range of high-quality classroom assessments. The author emphasizes assessment in the context of the realities of teaching and teacher decision-making in an era of standards-based education. Assessment methods are integrated with instruction and presented according to when teachers evaluate students (before, during, and after an instructional unit), the learning targets that are measured, and standards emphasized in state-w... MORE

Preface

xiii

The Role of Assessment in Teaching

(26)

Integrating Instruction and Assessment

(6)

... MORE

The Realities of Teaching

(3)

Instructional Decision Making and Assessment

(3)

What Is Classroom Assessment?

(4)

Purpose

(1)

Measurement

(1)

Evaluation

(1)

Use

(1)

Diagnosis

(1)

Grading

(1)

Instruction

(1)

Research on Learning, Motivation, Instruction, and Curriculum: Implications for Assessment

(2)

Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment

(4)

The Influence of Large-Scale Accountability Testing

(2)

Teachers' Classroom Assessment and Grading Practices Decision Making

(2)

Assessment Standards for Teachers

(1)

Summary

(1)

What's Coming

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

(1)

Learning Targets and Standards

(29)

What Are Learning Targets?

(12)

Educational Goals

(1)

Objectives

(4)

Standards-Based Education

(3)

Criteria

(1)

Expectations

(3)

Learning Targets

(1)

Types of Learning Targets

(3)

Knowledge and Simple Understanding Learning Targets

(1)

Deep Understanding and Reasoning Learning Targets

(1)

Skill Learning Targets

(1)

Product Learning Targets

(1)

Affective Learning Targets

(1)

Sources of Learning Targets and Standards

(7)

Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives

(2)

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Objectives

(1)

Professional Preparation

(1)

Textbooks

(2)

Existing Lists of Objectives

(1)

National and State Standards

(1)

Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets and Standards

(2)

Summary

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

(1)

High-Quality Classroom Assessment

(36)

What Is High-Quality Classroom Assessment?

(1)

Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets

(1)

Appropriateness of Assessment Methods

(6)

Types of Assessment Methods

(2)

Matching Targets with Methods

(1)

Knowledge and Simple Understanding

(1)

Deep Understanding and Reasoning

(1)

Skills

(1)

Products

(1)

Affect

(1)

Validity

(5)

What Is a Valid Assessment?

(1)

How Is Validity Determined?

(1)

Content-Related Evidence

(2)

Criterion-Related Evidence

(1)

Construct-Related Evidence

(1)

Reliability

(7)

What Is a Reliable Score?

(2)

Assessment Error

(1)

How Is Reliability Determined?

(1)

Sources of Reliability Evidence

(1)

Evidence Based on Stability

(1)

Evidence Based on Equivalent Forms

(1)

Evidence Based on Internal Consistency

(1)

Evidence Based on Scorer or Rater Consistency

(1)

Evidence Based on Decision Consistency

(1)

Factors Influencing Reliability Estimates

(1)

Fairness

(4)

Student Knowledge of Learning Targets and Assessments

(1)

Opportunity to Learn

(1)

Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills

(1)

Avoiding Student Stereotyping

(1)

Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks and Procedures

(2)

Accommodating Special Needs

(1)

Positive Consequences

(2)

Positive Consequences for Students

(2)

Positive Consequences for Teachers

(1)

Alignment

(4)

Practicality and Efficiency

(2)

Teacher Familiarity with the Method

(1)

Time Required

(1)

Complexity of Administration

(1)

Ease of Scoring

(1)

Ease of Interpretation

(1)

Cost

(1)

Summary

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

(1)

Assessment before Instruction: Learning about Your Students

(24)

Before School Begins: What Do You Know about Your Students?

(10)

School Records

(2)

Norm-Referenced Standardized Test Scores

(1)

Achievement Test Batteries

(2)

Aptitude Tests

(1)

Readiness Tests

(1)

Standards-Based State and District Test Scores

100

(1)

Uses of Standardized Tests

101

(1)

Information Cards

102

(1)

After the First Week: Now What Do You Know about Your Students?

103

(4)

Informal Observation

103

(2)

Structured Exercises

105

(1)

Pretests

106

(1)

Teacher Expectations

107

(3)

High-Quality Preinstructional Assessment

110

(3)

Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets

110

(1)

Appropriateness of Assessment Methods

111

(1)

Validity

111

(1)

Reliability

112

(1)

Fairness

112

(1)

Positive Consequences

112

(1)

Alignment

113

(1)

Practicality and Efficiency

113

(1)

Summary

113

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

114

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

115

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

115

(1)

Formative Assessment: Assessing and Promoting Student Progress during Instruction

116

(40)

Formative Assessment

117

(2)

Informal Observation

119

(9)

Assessing Nonverbal Behavior

120

(1)

Facial Expressions

121

(2)

Body Language

123

(1)

Gestures

124

(1)

Assessing Voice-Related Cues

124

(3)

Sources of Error in Informal Observation

127

(1)

Using Oral Questioning to Assess Student Progress

128

(7)

Purposes of Questioning

129

(1)

Characteristics of Effective Questioning to Assess Student Progress

130

(5)

Using Homework, In-Class Assignments, and Quizzes

135

(3)

Homework

136

(1)

In-Class Assignments

136

(1)

Quizzes

137

(1)

Providing Feedback and Praise

138

(5)

Characteristics of Effective Feedback

139

(3)

Characteristics of Effective Praise

142

(1)

Student Self-Assessment

143

(6)

Summary

149

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

150

(2)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

152

(2)

Suggestions for Action Research

154

(2)

Objectively Scored Assessments of Knowledge and Simple Understanding: Completion, Short-Answer, and Selected-Response Items

156

(37)

Preparing for Summative Assessment

157

(5)

Representative Sampling

158

(1)

Number and Length of Assessments

158

(1)

Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook and Test Publishers

159

(1)

Preparing Students for Summative Assessments

160

(1)

Scheduling the Summative Assessment

161

(1)

When Summative Assessments Should Be Constructed

162

(1)

Types of Knowledge and Simple Understanding Targets

162

(5)

Knowledge Representation

162

(2)

Declarative Knowledge and Understanding

164

(1)

Procedural Knowledge and Understanding

165

(2)

Assessing Knowledge

167

(14)

Completion and Short-Answer Items

167

(1)

Completion Items

167

(3)

Short-Answer Items

170

(2)

Matching Items

172

(2)

True/False and Other Binary-Choice Items

174

(3)

Multiple-Choice Items

177

(4)

Assessing Simple Understanding: Comprehension and Application

181

(4)

Assessing Comprehension

181

(1)

Assessing Application

182

(3)

Putting Tests Together

185

(2)

Preparing Test Directions

185

(1)

Arranging Items

186

(1)

Physical Layout of the Test

186

(1)

Administering Classroom Assessments

187

(1)

Summary

188

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

189

(2)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

191

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

192

(1)

Selected-Response, Short-Answer, and Essay Items: Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning

193

(35)

What Is Deep Understanding?

194

(1)

What Are Reasoning Skills?

195

(6)

Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain

197

(1)

Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy

198

(1)

Ennis's Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities

199

(1)

Quellmalz and Hoskyn's Framework for Reasoning Strategies

199

(2)

Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning

201

(22)

Short-Answer and Selected-Response Items

202

(1)

Short Answer

203

(1)

Binary-Choice

204

(1)

Multiple-Choice

204

(3)

Interpretive Exercises

207

(6)

Essay Items

213

(3)

Advantages and Disadvantages

216

(1)

Constructing Essay Items

216

(4)

Scoring Essays

220

(3)

Summary

223

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

224

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

225

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

226

(2)

Performance Assessments: Assessing Deep Understanding, Reasoning, and Skills

228

(40)

What Is Performance Assessment?

229

(1)

Strengths and Limitations of Performance Assessments

230

(3)

Learning Targets for Performance Assessments

233

(6)

Deep Understanding

233

(1)

Reasoning

233

(1)

Skills

234

(1)

Communication and Presentation Skills

234

(2)

Psychomotor Skills

236

(1)

Products

237

(2)

Constructing Performance Tasks

239

(10)

Restricted- and Extended-Type Performance Tasks

239

(2)

Performance Task Descriptions and Contexts

241

(1)

Performance Task Question or Prompt

242

(7)

Criteria and Rubrics

249

(15)

Performance Criteria

249

(1)

Rating Scales

250

(2)

Rubrics

252

(1)

Developing Rubrics

253

(11)

Summary

264

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

265

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

266

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

267

(1)

Portfolios: Assessing Understanding, Reasoning, Skills, and Products

268

(26)

What Are Portfolios?

269

(5)

Advantages

271

(1)

Disadvantages

272

(2)

Planning for Portfolio Assessment

274

(5)

Purpose

274

(1)

Learning Targets

274

(1)

Uses

274

(2)

Identify Physical Structure

276

(1)

Determine Sources of Content

276

(3)

Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and Scoring Criteria

279

(1)

Implementing Portfolio Assessment

279

(11)

Review with Students

279

(1)

Supplying Portfolio Content

280

(1)

Student Self-Evaluations

281

(6)

Teacher Evaluation

287

(1)

Checklists of Contents

287

(1)

Portfolio Structure Evaluation

287

(1)

Evaluations of Individual Entries

287

(1)

Evaluation of Entire Contents

288

(1)

Student--Teacher Conferences

288

(2)

Summary

290

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

291

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

292

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

293

(1)

Assessing Affective Traits and Dispositions

294

(33)

Are Affective Targets Important?

295

(1)

What Are Affective Traits and Learning Targets?

296

(9)

Attitude Targets

296

(2)

Value Targets

298

(1)

Motivation Targets

299

(1)

Academic Self-Concept Targets

300

(1)

Social Relationship Targets

301

(1)

Classroom Environment Targets

302

(1)

Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

303

(2)

Methods of Assessing Affective Targets

305

(18)

Teacher Observation

305

(2)

Unstructured Observation

307

(1)

Structured Observation

308

(1)

Student Self-Report

308

(1)

Student Interview

308

(2)

Questionnaires and Surveys

310

(2)

Constructed-Response Formats

312

(1)

Selected-Response Formats

313

(5)

Constructing Self-Report Items

318

(2)

Peer Ratings

320

(1)

Guess-Who Approach

320

(1)

Sociometric Approach

320

(1)

Which Method or Combination of Methods Should I Use?

321

(1)

Ensuring Anonymity

322

(1)

Summary

323

(2)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

325

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

326

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

326

(1)

Assessing Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Settings

327

(25)

Legal Mandates

328

(2)

Assessing Students for Identification

330

(6)

Steps before Identification

330

(1)

Identification

331

(1)

Mild Mental Retardation

332

(1)

Sensory Impairment

332

(1)

Physical Impairment

332

(1)

Learning Disability

333

(1)

Emotional Disturbance

333

(1)

Attention Deficits

333

(1)

Hyperactivity

333

(1)

Limited-English-Proficient Students

334

(2)

Assessment Problems Encountered by Students with Special Needs

336

(3)

Comprehension Difficulties

336

(1)

Auditory Difficulties

337

(1)

Visual Difficulties

337

(1)

Time Constraint Difficulties

338

(1)

Anxiety

338

(1)

Embarrassment

338

(1)

Variability of Behavior

338

(1)

Assessment Accommodations

339

(5)

Adaptations in Test Directions, Construction, and Format

339

(1)

Short-Answer and Essay Items

340

(1)

Multiple-Choice Items

341

(1)

Binary-Choice Items

341

(1)

Completion Items

341

(1)

Performance Assessments

342

(1)

Portfolios

342

(1)

Adaptations in Test Administration

342

(1)

Adaptations in Testing Site

342

(2)

Grading and Reporting Accommodations

344

(4)

Grading Accommodations

345

(1)

IEP Grading

345

(1)

Shared Grading

346

(1)

Contracting

346

(1)

Reporting Accommodations

346

(2)

Summary

348

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

349

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

350

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

351

(1)

Grading and Reporting Student Performance

352

(40)

Teachers' Judgments in Grading

353

(3)

Functions of Marking and Grading

356

(10)

Providing Feedback

356

(1)

Incorporating Factors Other Than Performance

357

(1)

Effort

357

(1)

Aptitude

358

(1)

Improvement

359

(1)

Attitudes

359

(1)

Basis of Comparison

360

(4)

Motivation

364

(2)

Approaches to Marking and Grading

366

(6)

Letter Grades

366

(1)

Percentage Correct

367

(1)

Pass--Fail

368

(1)

Checklists

368

(1)

Standards-Based

369

(1)

Written Descriptions

370

(2)

Determining Report Card (Composite) Grades

372

(12)

Select What to Include in the Final Grade

372

(1)

Select Weights for Each Assessment

373

(2)

Combining Different Scores and Grades

375

(1)

Eyeball Method

375

(1)

Percent Correct Method

375

(4)

Total Points Method

379

(1)

Combining Relative Scores and Grades

380

(1)

Borderline Grades

381

(1)

Suggestions for Fair Grading

381

(3)

Reporting Student Progress to Parents

384

(3)

Report Cards

384

(1)

Written Information

384

(1)

Parent--Teacher Conferences

385

(2)

Student-Led Conferences

387

(1)

Summary

387

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

388

(2)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

390

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

391

(1)

Administering and Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests

392

(32)

Fundamental Descriptive Statistics

393

(8)

Frequency Distributions

393

(1)

Measures of Central Tendency

394

(2)

Measures of Variability

396

(1)

Measures of Relationship

397

(1)

Scatterplot

398

(1)

Correlation Coefficient

399

(2)

Types of Derived Standardized Test Scores

401

(5)

Standard Scores

401

(1)

Z-Score

402

(1)

T-Score

402

(1)

Normal Curve Equivalent

403

(1)

Stanines

403

(1)

Scaled Score

404

(1)

Deviation IQ and Standard Age Scores

405

(1)

Other Standard Scores

405

(1)

Grade Equivalent Scores

405

(1)

Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests

406

(8)

Standard Error of Measurement

406

(1)

Alignment

407

(1)

Interpretation of Norm-Referenced Standardized Tests

408

(1)

Types of Standardized Test Norms

408

(1)

Using Test Norms

409

(2)

Criterion-Referenced/Standards-Based Interpretations

411

(3)

Understanding Standardized Test Score Reports

414

(2)

Interpreting Test Reports for Parents

416

(2)

Preparing Students to Take Standardized Tests

418

(2)

Administering Standardized Tests

420

(1)

Summary

420

(1)

Self-Instructional Review Exercises

421

(1)

Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises

422

(1)

Suggestions for Action Research

423

(1)

Appendix A The Scope of a Teacher's Professional Role and Responsibilities for Student Assessment

424

(3)

Appendix B The Student Evaluation Standards

427

(3)

Glossary

430

(5)

References

435

(6)

Index

441

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Classroom Assessment : Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction

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