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Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

by: Silberberg, Martin

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

by: Silberberg, Martin

ISBN 13:
9780073101699
ISBN 10:
0073101699
Edition: 4th
Format: Package
Copyright: 12/21/2004
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education
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Summary

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change by Martin Silberberg has become a favorite among faculty and students. Silberberg's 4th edition contains features that make it the most comprehensive and relevant text for any student enrolled in General Chemistry. The text contains unprecedented macroscopic to microscopic molecular illustrations, consistent step-by-step worked exercises in every chapter, an extensive range of end-of-chapter problems which provide engaging applications covering a wide variety of freshman interests, including engineering, medicine, materials, and environmental studies. All of these qualities make Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change the centerpiece for any General Chemistry course.

Preface

xvii

Acknowledgments

xix

Guided Tour

xxiii

Keys to the Study of Chemistry

(37)

Some Fundamental Definitions

(6)

The Properties of Matter

(2)

The Three States of Matter

(1)

The Central Theme in Chemistry

(1)

The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter

(2)

Chemical Arts and the Origins of Modern Chemistry

(2)

Prechemical Traditions

(1)

The Phlogiston Fiasco and the Impact of Lavoisier

(1)

The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model

(2)

Chemical Problem Solving

(4)

Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations

(2)

A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems

(2)

Measurement in Scientific Study

(9)

General Features of SI Units

(1)

Some Important SI Units in Chemistry

(8)

Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures

(13)

Determining Which Digits Are Significant

(1)

Significant Figures in Calculations

(2)

Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration

(1)

Chapter Perspective

(1)

Chemical Connections to Interdisciplinary Science: Chemistry Problem Solving in the Real World

(1)

For Review and Reference

(1)

Problems

(5)

The Components of Matter

(48)

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

(2)

The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter

(3)

Mass Conservation

(1)

Definite Composition

(1)

Multiple Proportions

(1)

Dalton's Atomic Theory

(1)

Postulates of the Atomic Theory

(1)

How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws

(1)

The Relative Masses of Atoms

(1)

The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model

(4)

Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties

(2)

Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus

(2)

The Atomic Theory Today

(5)

Structure of the Atom

(1)

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol

(1)

Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements

(2)

Tools of the Laboratory: Mass Spectrometry

(1)

A Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory

(1)

Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

(3)

Compounds: Introduction to Bonding

(5)

The Formation of Ionic Compounds

(1)

The Formation of Covalent Compounds

(1)

The Elements of Life

(1)

Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses

(11)

Types of Chemical Formulas

(1)

Some Advice about Learning Names and Formulas

(1)

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

(5)

Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds

(1)

An Introduction to Naming Organic Compounds

(1)

Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas

(2)

Gallery: Picturing Molecules

(1)

Mixtures: Classification and Separation

(13)

Tools of the Laboratory: Basic Separation Techniques

(2)

Chapter Perspective

(1)

For Review and Reference

(1)

Problems

(8)

Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations

(48)

The Mole

(7)

Defining the Mole

(2)

Molar Mass

(1)

Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities

(3)

Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula

(1)

Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound

(7)

Empirical Formulas

(1)

Molecular Formulas

(3)

Chemical Formulas and Molecular Structures

(2)

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

101

(4)

Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product

105

(11)

Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation

106

(3)

Chemical Reactions That Occur in a Sequence

109

(1)

Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant

110

(4)

Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields

114

(2)

Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry

116

(18)

Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity

117

(1)

Mole-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions

117

(1)

Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions

118

(2)

Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution

120

(2)

Chapter Perspective

122

(1)

For Review and Reference

123

(2)

Problems

125

(9)

The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions

134

(42)

The Role of Water as a Solvent

135

(5)

The Polar Nature of Water

135

(1)

Ionic Compounds in Water

136

(2)

Covalent Compounds in Water

138

(2)

Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions

140

(1)

Precipitation Reactions

141

(3)

The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from Dissolved Ions

141

(1)

Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form

142

(2)

Acid-Base Reactions

144

(6)

The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H+ and OH-

145

(1)

Acid-Base Titrations

146

(2)

Proton Transfer: A Closer Look at Acid-Base Reactions

148

(2)

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

150

(8)

The Key Event: Movement of Electrons Between Reactants

150

(1)

Some Essential Redox Terminology

151

(1)

Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor the Movement of Electron Charge

151

(3)

Balancing Redox Equations

154

(1)

Redox Titrations

155

(3)

Elements in Redox Reactions

158

(7)

Reversible Reactions: An Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium

165

(11)

Chapter Perspective

167

(1)

For Review and Reference

167

(2)

Problems

169

(7)

Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

176

(48)

An Overview of the Physical States of Matter

177

(2)

Gas Pressure and Its Measurement

179

(4)

Laboratory Devices for Measuring Gas Pressure

179

(2)

Units of Pressure

181

(2)

The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations

183

(10)

The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle's Law

183

(1)

The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles's Law

184

(2)

The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogadro's Law

186

(1)

Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions

187

(1)

The Ideal Gas Law

188

(1)

Solving Gas Law Problems

189

(4)

Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law

193

(5)

The Density of a Gas

193

(1)

The Molar Mass of a Gas

194

(1)

The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases

195

(3)

The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry

198

(2)

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior

200

(10)

How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws

200

(5)

Effusion and Diffusion

205

(1)

The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency

206

(1)

Chemical Connections to Planetary Science: Structure and Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

207

(3)

Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior

210

(14)

Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior

210

(2)

The van der Waals Equation: The Ideal Gas Law Redesigned

212

(1)

Chapter Perspective

213

(1)

For Review and Reference

213

(3)

Problems

216

(8)

Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change

224

(32)

Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion

225

(7)

The System and Its Surroundings

225

(1)

Energy Flow to and from a System

226

(1)

Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer

227

(2)

The Law of Energy Conservation

229

(1)

Units of Energy

229

(1)

State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change

230

(2)

Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change

232

(3)

The Meaning of Enthalpy

232

(1)

Comparing ΔE and ΔH

232

(1)

Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

233

(1)

Some Important Types of Enthalpy Change

234

(1)

Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction

235

(3)

Specific Heat Capacity

235

(1)

The Practice of Calorimetry

236

(2)

Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations

238

(2)

Hess's Law of Heat Summation

240

(2)

Standard Heats of Reaction (ΔH rxn)

242

(14)

Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes

242

(1)

Determining ΔH rxn from ΔH f Values of Reactants and Products

243

(2)

Chemical Connections to Environmental Science: The Future of Energy Use

245

(3)

Chapter Perspective

248

(1)

For Review and Reference

248

(2)

Problems

250

(6)

Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure

256

(34)

The Nature of Light

257

(7)

The Wave Nature of Light

258

(4)

The Particle Nature of Light

262

(2)

Atomic Spectra

264

(7)

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

265

(1)

The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom

266

(3)

Tools of the Laboratory: Spectrophotometry in Chemical Analysis

269

(2)

The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy

271

(4)

The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons

271

(3)

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

274

(1)

The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom

275

(15)

The Atomic Orbital and the Probable Location of the Electron

275

(2)

Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital

277

(3)

Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

280

(3)

Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom

283

(1)

Chapter Perspective

283

(1)

For Review and Reference

283

(2)

Problems

285

(5)

Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity

290

(38)

Development of the Periodic Table

291

(1)

Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms

292

(4)

The Electron-Spin Quantum Number

292

(1)

The Exclusion Principle

293

(1)

Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting

294

(2)

The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table

296

(9)

Building Up Periods 1 and 2

296

(2)

Building Up Period 3

298

(2)

Electron Configurations Within Groups

300

(1)

The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4

300

(2)

General Principles of Electron Configurations

302

(1)

Unusual Configurations: Transition and Inner Transition Elements

303

(2)

Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties

305

(8)

Trends in Atomic Size

305

(4)

Trends in Ionization Energy

309

(3)

Trends in Electron Affinity

312

(1)

Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity

313

(15)

Trends in Metallic Behavior

313

(3)

Properties of Monatomic Ions

316

(6)

Chapter Perspective

322

(1)

For Review and Reference

322

(2)

Problems

324

(4)

Models of Chemical Bonding

328

(37)

Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds

329

(3)

The Three Types of Chemical Bonding

329

(2)

Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms in Chemical Bonding

331

(1)

The Ionic Bonding Model

332

(7)

Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance of Lattice Energy

333

(2)

Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy

335

(2)

How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds

337

(2)

The Covalent Bonding Model

339

(8)

The Formation of a Covalent Bond

339

(2)

Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length

341

(2)

How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances

343

(2)

Tools of the Laboratory: Infrared Spectroscopy

345

(2)

Bond Energy and Chemical Change

347

(4)

Changes in Bond Strength: Where Does ΔH rxn Come From?

347

(1)

Using Bond Energies to Calculate ΔH rxn

347

(3)

Relative Bond Strengths in Fuels and Foods

350

(1)

Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

351

(6)

Electronegativity

351

(2)

Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity

353

(1)

The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds

354

(1)

The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period

355

(2)

An Introduction to Metallic Bonding

357

(8)

The Electron-Sea Model

357

(1)

How the Model Explains the Properties of Metals

358

(2)

Chapter Perspective

360

(1)

For Review and Reference

360

(1)

Problems

361

(4)

The Shapes of Molecules

365

(33)

Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures

366

(9)

Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures

366

(3)

Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding

369

(2)

Formal Charge: Selecting the More Important Resonance Structure

371

(1)

Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule

372

(3)

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and Molecular Shape

375

(12)

Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes

376

(1)

The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (Linear Arrangement)

377

(1)

Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar Arrangement)

377

(1)

Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement)

378

(2)

Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal Arrangement)

380

(1)

Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral Arrangement)

381

(2)

Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape

383

(1)

Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom

384

(2)

Gallery: Molecular Beauty: Odd Shapes With Useful Functions

386

(1)

Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity

387

(11)

Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment

387

(2)

The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior

389

(1)

Chapter Perspective

389

(1)

Chemical Connections to Sensory Physiology: Molecular Shape, Biological Receptors, and the Sense of Smell

390

(2)

For Review and Reference

392

(1)

Problems

393

(5)

Theories of Covalent Bonding

398

(26)

Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization

399

(7)

The Central Themes of VB Theory

399

(1)

Types of Hybrid Orbitals

400

(6)

The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds

406

(3)

Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds

406

(3)

Orbital Overlap and Molecular Rotation

409

(1)

Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization

409

(15)

The Central Themes of MO Theory

410

(2)

Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Period 2 Elements

412

(5)

MO Description of Some Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules

417

(1)

MO Descriptions of Benzene and Ozone

418

(1)

Chapter Perspective

419

(1)

For Review and Reference

419

(2)

Problems

421

(3)

Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes

424

(64)

An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes

425

(3)

Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes

428

(8)

Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach

428

(2)

The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes

430

(4)

Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Physical State

434

(2)

Types of Intermolecular Forces

436

(7)

Ion-Dipole Forces

437

(1)

Dipole-Dipole Forces

438

(1)

The Hydrogen Bond

439

(1)

Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces

440

(1)

Dispersion (London) Forces

441

(2)

Properties of the Liquid State

443

(2)

Surface Tension

443

(1)

Capillarity

444

(1)

Viscosity

445

(1)

Gallery: Properties of Liquids

446

The Uniqueness of Water

445

(4)

Solvent Properties of Water

447

(1)

Thermal Properties of Water

447

(1)

Surface Properties of Water

447

(1)

The Density of Solid and Liquid Water

448

(1)

The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding

449

(15)

Structural Features of Solids

449

(6)

Tools of the Laboratory: X-Ray Diffraction Analysis and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

455

(1)

Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids

456

(4)

Amorphous Solids

460

(1)

Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital Band Theory

460

(4)

Advanced Materials

464

(24)

Electronic Materials

464

(2)

Liquid Crystals

466

(3)

Ceramic Materials

469

(3)

Polymeric Materials

472

(5)

Nanotechnology: Designing Materials Atom by Atom

477

(2)

Chapter Perspective

479

(1)

For Review and Reference

480

(1)

Problems

481

(7)

The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids

488

(53)

Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Predicting Solubility

490

(5)

Intermolecular Forces in Solution

490

(1)

Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity

491

(3)

Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions

494

(1)

Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules

495

(7)

The Structure of Proteins

495

(3)

The Structure of the Cell Membrane

498

(2)

The Structure of DNA

500

(1)

The Structure of Cellulose

501

(1)

Why Substances Dissolves: Understanding the Solution Process

502

(5)

Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles

502

(1)

Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water

503

(2)

The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy

505

(2)

Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

507

(3)

Effect of Temperature on Solubility

508

(1)

Effect of Pressure on Solubility

509

(1)

Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration

510

(5)

Molarity and Molality

510

(2)

Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution

512

(2)

Interconverting Concentration Terms

514

(1)

Colligative Properties of Solutions

515

(12)

Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions

516

(5)

Gallery: Colligative Properties in Industry and Biology

521

(2)

Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass

523

(1)

Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions

524

(1)

Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions

525

(2)

The Structure and Properties of Colloids

527

(14)

Chemical Connections to Sanitary Engineering: Solutions and Colloids in Water Purification

529

(2)

Chapter Perspective

531

(1)

For Review and Reference

531

(3)

Problems

534

(7)

INTERCHAPTER A Perspective on the Properties of the Elements

541

Topic 1 The Key Atomic Properties

542

(2)

Topic 2 Characteristics of Chemical Bonding

544

(2)

Topic 3 Metallic Behavior

546

(1)

Topic 4 Acid-Base Behavior of the Element Oxides

547

(1)

Topic 5 Redox Behavior of the Elements

548

(2)

Topic 6 Physical States and Phase Changes

550

(2)

Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements

552

(64)

Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom

553

(2)

Where Does Hydrogen Fit in the Periodic Table?

553

(1)

Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry

554

(1)

Trends Across the Periodic Table: The Period 2 Elements

555

(3)

Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals

558

(4)

Why Are the Alkakli Metals Soft, Low Melting, and Lightweight?

558

(1)

Why Are the Alkali Metals So Reactive?

558

(1)

The Anomalous Behavior of Lithium

559

(3)

Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals

562

(4)

How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare?

562

(1)

How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare?

562

(1)

The Anomalous Behavior of Beryllium

563

(1)

Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and Magnesium

563

(1)

Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2), and 3A(13)

563

(3)

Group 3A(13): The Boron Family

566

(6)

How Do the Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13) Properties?

566

(1)

What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties of Group 3A(13)?

566

(4)

Highlights of Boron Chemistry

570

(2)

Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium and Aluminum

572

(1)

Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family

572

(11)

How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect Physical Properties?

572

(4)

How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14) Compounds?

576

(1)

Highlights of Carbon Chemistry

576

(2)

Highlights of Silicon Chemistry

578

(1)

Diagonal Relationships: Boron and Silicon

579

(1)

Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14), and 5A(15)

579

(1)

Gallery: Silicate Minerals and Silicone Polymers

580

(3)

Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family

583

(8)

What Accounts for the Wide Range of Physical Behavior in Group 5A(15)?

583

(3)

What Patterns Appear in the Chemical Behavior of Group 5A(15)?

586

(1)

Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry

587

(3)

Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids

590

(1)

Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family

591

(7)

How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Physically?

591

(3)

How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Chemically?

594

(2)

Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry: Range of Oxide Properties

596

(1)

Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides, Oxoacids, and Sulfides

596

(2)

Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16), and 7A(17)

598

(1)

Group 7A(17): The Halogens

598

(7)

What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens' Physical Properties?

598

(1)

Why Are the Halogens So Reactive?

598

(4)

Highlights of Halogen Chemistry

602

(3)

Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases

605

(11)

How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds?

605

(1)

Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18), and 1A(1)

605

(2)

Chapter Perspective

607

(1)

For Review and Reference

607

(1)

Problems

608

(8)

Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon

616

(56)

The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules

617

(3)

The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules

618

(1)

The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules

618

(2)

The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons

620

(14)

Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins

620

(3)

Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds

623

(2)

Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Properties of Alkanes

625

(2)

Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism

627

(1)

Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds

628

(2)

Chemical Connections to Sensory Physiology: Geometric Isomers and the Chemistry of Vision

630

(1)

Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds

631

(1)

Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with Delocalized π Electrons

632

(1)

Variations on a Theme: Catenated Inorganic Hydrides

633

(1)

Tools of the Laboratory: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

634

(1)

Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions

634

(4)

Types of Organic Reactions

634

(3)

The Redox Process in Organic Reactions

637

(1)

Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups

638

(12)

Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds

638

(5)

Functional Groups with Double Bonds

643

(2)

Functional Groups with Single and Double Bonds

645

(4)

Functional Groups with Triple Bonds

649

(1)

The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules

650

(3)

Addition Polymers

651

(1)

Condensation Polymers

652

(1)

The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules

653

(19)

Sugars and Polysaccharides

653

(2)

Amino Acids and Proteins

655

(3)

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

658

(3)

Chapter Perspective

661

(1)

Chemical Connections to Genetics: DNA Sequencing and the Human Genome Project

662

(2)

For Review and Reference

664

(2)

Problems

666

(6)

Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions

672

(50)

Factors That Influence Reaction Rate

674

(1)

Expressing the Reaction Rate

675

(4)

Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates

676

(2)

Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and Product Concentrations

678

(1)

The Rate Law and Its Components

679

(7)

Tools of the Laboratory: Measuring Reaction Rates

680

(1)

Determining the Initial Rate

681

(1)

Reaction Order Terminology

682

(1)

Determining Reaction Orders

683

(2)

Determining the Rate Constant

685

(1)

Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time

686

(6)

Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-Order Reactions

686

(2)

Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law

688

(1)

Reaction Half-Life

689

(3)

The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate

692

(2)

Explaining the Effects of Concentration and Temperature

694

(6)

Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law

694

(3)

Transition State Theory: Molecular Nature of the Activated Complex

697

(3)

Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction

700

(6)

Elementary Reactions and Molecularity

701

(1)

The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism

702

(1)

Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law

703

(3)

Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction

706

(16)

Homogeneous Catalysis

707

(1)

Heterogeneous Catalysis

708

(1)

Chemical Connections to Enzymology: Kinetics and Function of Biological Catalysts

709

(2)

Chemical Connections to Atmospheric Science: Depletion of the Earth's Ozone Layer

711

(1)

Chapter Perspective

712

(1)

For Review and Reference

712

(2)

Problems

714

(8)

Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions

722

(44)

The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant

723

(3)

The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant

726

(7)

Writing the Reaction Quotient

727

(1)

Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient

728

(5)

Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp

733

(1)

Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K

734

(2)

How to Solve Equilibrium Problems

736

(9)

Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant

736

(3)

Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities

739

(4)

Mixtures of Reactants and Products: Determining Reaction Direction

743

(2)

Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State: Le Chatelier's Principle

745

(21)

The Effect of a Change in Concentration

746

(2)

The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume)

748

(2)

The Effect of a Change in Temperature

750

(2)

The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst

752

(2)

Chemical Connections to Cellular Metabolism: Design and Control of a Metabolic Pathway

754

(1)

Chemical Connections to Industrial Production: The Haber Process for the Synthesis of Ammonia

755

(1)

Chapter Perspective

756

(1)

For Review and Reference

757

(2)

Problems

759

(7)

Acid-Base Equilibria

766

(48)

Acids and Bases in Water

768

(5)

Release of H+ or OH- and the Classical Acid-Base Definition

768

(1)

Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka)

769

(3)

Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

772

(1)

Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale

773

(4)

The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water (Kw)

773

(2)

Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale

775

(2)

Proton Transfer and the Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition

777

(5)

The Conjugate Acid-Base Pair

778

(2)

Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of Reaction

780

(2)

Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria

782

(6)

Finding Ka Given a Concentration

783

(1)

Finding Concentration Given Ka

784

(1)

The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation

785

(1)

The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids

786

(2)

Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids

788

(5)

Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines

788

(3)

Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases

791

(1)

The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair

791

(2)

Molecular Properties and Acid Strength

793

(3)

Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides

793

(1)

Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids

794

(1)

Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions

794

(2)

Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions

796

(3)

Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions

796

(1)

Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions

796

(1)

Salts That Yield Basic Solutions

797

(1)

Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions

798

(1)

Generalizing the Bronsted-Lowry Concept: The Leveling Effect

799

(1)

Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition

800

(14)

Molecules as Lewis Acids

801

(1)

Metal Cations as Lewis Acids

802

(2)

Chapter Perspective

804

(1)

For Review and Reference

804

(2)

Problems

806

(8)

Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems

814

(49)

Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems

815

(9)

How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect

816

(4)

The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

820

(1)

Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range

821

(1)

Preparing a Buffer

822

(2)

Acid-Base Titration Curves

824

(8)

Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators

824

(1)

Strong Acid--Strong Base Titration Curves

825

(2)

Weak Acid--Strong Base Titration Curves

827

(3)

Weak Base-Strong Acid Titration Curves

830

(1)

Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids

830

(1)

Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic Acids

831

(1)

Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds

832

(12)

The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp)

833

(1)

Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant

834

(3)

The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility

837

(1)

The Effect of pH on Solubility

838

(2)

Chemical Connections to Geology: Creation of a Limestone Cave

840

(1)

Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp

841

(1)

Chemical Connections to Environmental Science: The Acid-Rain Problem

842

(2)

Equilibria Involving Complex Ions

844

(6)

Formation of Complex Ions

844

(2)

Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates

846

(2)

Complex Ions of Amphoteric Hydroxides

848

(2)

Ionic Equilibria in Chemical Analysis

850

(13)

Selective Precipitation

850

(1)

Qualitative Analysis: Identifying Ions in Complex Mixtures

851

(3)

Chapter Perspective

854

(1)

For Review and Reference

854

(2)

Problems

856

(7)

Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions

863

(39)

The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change

864

(11)

Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics

865

(1)

The Sign of ΔH Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change

866

(1)

Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Particle Energy

867

(1)

Entropy and the Number of Microstates

867

(3)

Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

870

(1)

Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law

871

(4)

Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction

875

(6)

Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy of Reaction (ΔS rxn)

875

(2)

Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part of the Total

877

(1)

The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State

878

(1)

Chemical Connections to Biology: Do Living Things Obey the Laws of Thermodynamics?

879

(1)

Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: A Summary

880

(1)

Entropy, Free Energy, and Work

881

(9)

Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity

881

(1)

Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes

882

(2)

ΔG and the Work a System Can Do

884

(2)

The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity

886

(2)

Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change

888

(1)

Chemical Connections to Biological Energetics: The Universal Role of ATP

889

(1)

Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction

890

(12)

Chapter Perspective

894

(1)

For Review and Reference

894

(2)

Problems

896

(6)

Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work

902

(58)

Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells

903

(6)

A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts

903

(1)

Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions

904

(4)

An Overview of Electrochemical Cells

908

(1)

Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy

909

(5)

Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell

910

(2)

Notation for a Voltaic Cell

912

(1)

Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work?

913

(1)

Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell

914

(9)

Standard Cell Potentials

915

(2)

Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

917

(6)

Free Energy and Electrical Work

923

(9)

Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant

923

(3)

The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential

926

(1)

Changes in Potential During Cell Operation

927

(1)

Concentration Cells

928

(4)

Electrochemical Processes in Batteries

932

(4)

Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries

932

(1)

Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries

933

(2)

Fuel Cells

935

(1)

Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry

936

(3)

The Corrosion of Iron

936

(2)

Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron

938

(1)

Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions

939

(21)

Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell

939

(2)

Predicting the Products of Electrolysis

941

(3)

The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge and Product

944

(3)

Chemical Connections to Biological Energetics: Cellular Electrochemistry and the Production of ATP

947

(2)

Chapter Perspective

949

(1)

For Review and Reference

949

(3)

Problems

952

(8)

The Elements in Nature and Industry

960

(42)

How the Elements Occur in Nature

961

(5)

Earth's Structure and the Abundance of the Elements

961

(4)

Sources of the Elements

965

(1)

The Cycling of Elements Through the Environment

966

(7)

The Carbon Cycle

966

(2)

The Nitrogen Cycle

968

(2)

The Phosphorus Cycle

970

(3)

Metallurgy: Extracting a Metal from Its Ore

973

(5)

Pretreating the Ore

973

(1)

Converting Mineral to Element

974

(3)

Refining and Alloying the Element

977

(1)

Tapping the Crust: Isolation and Uses of the Elements

978

(14)

Producing the Alkali Metals: Sodium and Potassium

978

(2)

The Indispensable Three: Iron, Copper, and Aluminum

980

(7)

Mining the Sea: Magnesium and Bromine

987

(1)

The Many Sources and Uses of Hydrogen

988

(4)

Chemical Manufacturing: Two Case Studies

992

(10)

Sulfuric Acid, the Most Important Chemical

992

(2)

The Chlor-Alkali Process

994

(2)

Chapter Perspective

996

(1)

For Review and Reference

996

(1)

Problems

997

(5)

The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds

1002

(42)

Properties of the Transition Elements

1004

(6)

Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions

1004

(2)

Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements

1006

(1)

Chemical Properties of the Transition Metals

1007

(3)

The Inner Transition Elements

1010

(2)

The Lanthanides

1010

(1)

The Actinides

1011

(1)

Highlights of Selected Transition Metals

1012

(5)

Chromium

1012

(1)

Manganese

1013

(1)

Silver

1014

(2)

Mercury

1016

(1)

Coordination Compounds

1017

(9)

Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries, and Ligands

1018

(2)

Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds

1020

(2)

A Historical Perspective Alfred Werner and Coordination Theory

1022

(1)

Isomerism in Coordination Compounds

1023

(3)

Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and Properties of Complexes

1026

(18)

Application of Valence Bond Theory to Complex Ions

1026

(2)

Crystal Field Theory

1028

(6)

Chapter Perspective

1034

(1)

Chemical Connections to Nutritional Science: Transition Metals as Essential Dietary Trace Elements

1035

(2)

For Review and Reference

1037

(1)

Problems

1038

(6)

Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications

1044

Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability

1046

(8)

The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation

1046

(1)

The Discovery of Radioactivity and the Types of Emissions

1046

(2)

Types of Radioactive Decay; Balancing Nuclear Equations

1048

(2)

Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay

1050

(4)

The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

1054

(5)

The Rate of Radioactive Decay

1054

(1)

Tools of the Laboratory: Counters for the Detection of Radioactive Emissions

1055

(2)

Radioisotopic Dating

1057

(2)

Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei

1059

(3)

Early Transmutation Experiments; Discovery of the Neutron

1059

(1)

Particle Accelerators and the Transuranium Elements

1060

(2)

The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter

1062

(4)

The Effects of Radioactive Emissions: Excitation and Ionization

1062

(1)

Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Matter

1062

(4)

Applications of Radioisotopes

1066

(4)

Radioactive Tracers: Applications of Nonionizing Radiation

1066

(3)

Applications of Ionizing Radiation

1069

(1)

The Interconversion of Mass and Energy

1070

(3)

The Mass Defect

1070

(1)

Nuclear Binding Energy

1071

(2)

Applications of Fission and Fusion

1073

The Process of Nuclear Fission

1073

(4)

The Promise of Nuclear Fusion

1077

(1)

Chemical Connections to Cosmology: Origin of the Elements in the Stars

1078

(2)

Chapter Perspective

1080

(1)

For Review and Reference

1081

(2)

Problems

1083

Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry

(4)

Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K

(3)

Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K

(3)

Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials at 298 K

(1)

Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems

Glossary

(1)

Credits

(1)

Index

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Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

9780073101699

0073101699

Summary

Table of Contents

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Amazon no longer offers textbook rentals. We do!

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

9780073101699

0073101699

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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