9780131829930

Guide to critical thinking for students. Includes revised text and Companion Website, new practice passages, rewritten chapters, and an emphasis on the positive dimensions of critical thinking. Previous edition: c2001. Softcover. DLC: Criticism.

Preface

xi

The Benefit of Asking the Right Questions

1

(14)

Introduction

1

(1)

Critical Thinking to the Rescue

2

(1)

The Sponge and Panning for Gold: Alternative Thinking Styles

3

(2)

An Example of the Panning-for-Gold Approach

5

(2)

Panning for Gold: Asking Critical Questions

7

(1)

The Myth of the ``Right Answer''

7

(1)

Thinking and Feeling

8

(1)

The Efficiency of Asking the Question, ``Who Cares?''

9

(1)

Weak-Sense and Strong-Sense Critical Thinking

10

(1)

The Satisfaction of Using the Panning-for-Gold Approach

11

(1)

Trying Out New Answers

11

(1)

Effective Communication and Critical Thinking

12

(1)

The Importance of Practice

12

(1)

The Right Questions

13

(2)

What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?

15

(10)

Kinds of Issues

16

(1)

Searching for the Issue

17

(1)

Searching for the Author's or Speaker's Conclusion

18

(1)

Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion

19

(2)

Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking

21

(1)

Practice Exercises

22

(3)

What Are the Reasons?

25

(12)

Reasons + Conclusion = Argument

26

(1)

Initiating the Questioning Process

27

(2)

Words That Identify Reasons

29

(1)

Kinds of Reasons

29

(2)

Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight

31

(2)

Reasons First, Then Conclusions

33

(1)

``Fresh'' Reasons and Your Growth

33

(1)

Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking

34

(1)

Practice Exercises

34

(3)

What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous?

37

(16)

The Confusing Flexibility of Words

38

(1)

Locating Key Terms and Phrases

39

(1)

Checking for Ambiguity

40

(1)

Determining Ambiguity

41

(2)

Context and Ambiguity

43

(2)

Ambiguity, Definitions, and the Dictionary

45

(2)

Ambiguity and Loaded Language

47

(1)

Limits of Your Responsibility to Clarify Ambiguity

48

(1)

Ambiguity and Your Own Writing and Speaking

48

(1)

Summary

49

(1)

Practice Exercises

50

(3)

What Are the Value Conflicts and Assumptions?

53

(18)

General Guide for Identifying Assumptions

55

(1)

Value Conflicts and Assumptions

55

(1)

Discovering Values

56

(2)

From Values to Value Assumptions

58

(1)

Typical Value Conflicts

59

(2)

The Communicator's Background as a Clue to Value Assumptions

61

(1)

Consequences as Clues to Value Assumptions

61

(1)

More Hints for Finding Value Assumptions

62

(1)

Avoiding a Typical Difficulty When Identifying Value Assumptions

63

(1)

Finding Value Assumptions on Your Own

64

(3)

Values and Relativism

67

(1)

Summary

67

(1)

Practice Exercises

67

(4)

What Are the Descriptive Assumptions?

71

(12)

Illustrating Descriptive Assumptions

72

(2)

Clues for Locating Assumptions

74

(3)

Applying the Clues

77

(1)

Avoiding Analysis of Trivial Assumptions

78

(1)

Assumptions and Your Own Writing and Speaking

79

(1)

Summary

79

(1)

Practice Exercises

80

(3)

Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?

83

(20)

A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning Fallacies

85

(1)

Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point

85

(3)

Discovering Other Common Reasoning Fallacies

88

(6)

Looking for Diversions

94

(2)

Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question

96

(1)

Summary of Reasoning Errors

97

(1)

Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies

98

(1)

Fallacies and Your Own Writing and Speaking

99

(1)

Practice Exercises

99

(4)

How Good Is the Evidence: Intuition, Personal Experience, Testimonials, and Appeals to Authority?

103

(14)

The Need for Evidence

104

(1)

Locating Factual Claims

105

(1)

Sources of Evidence

106

(1)

Intuition as Evidence

107

(1)

Dangers of Appealing to Personal Experience as Evidence

108

(1)

Personal Testimonials as Evidence

109

(1)

Appeals to Authority as Evidence

110

(3)

Summary

113

(1)

Practice Exercises

114

(3)

How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation, Research Studies, Case Examples, and Analogies?

117

(20)

Personal Observation

117

(1)

Research Studies as Evidence

118

(5)

Generalizing from the Research Sample

123

(1)

Biased Surveys and Questionnaires

124

(3)

Critical Evaluation of a Research-Based Argument

127

(1)

Case Examples as Evidence

128

(1)

Analogies as Evidence

129

(4)

Summary

133

(1)

Practice Exercises

133

(4)

Are There Rival Causes?

137

(18)

When to Look for Rival Causes

138

(1)

The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes

139

(3)

Detecting Rival Causes

142

(1)

The Cause or A Cause

142

(1)

Rival Causes and Scientific Research

143

(2)

Rival Causes for Differences Between Groups

145

(1)

Confusing Causation with Association

146

(2)

Strong Support for a Cause

148

(1)

Confusing ``After this'' with ``Because of this''

148

(2)

Explaining Individual Events or Acts

150

(1)

Evaluating Rival Causes

151

(1)

Evidence and Your Own Writing and Speaking

152

(1)

Summary

152

(1)

Practice Exercises

152

(3)

Are the Statistics Deceptive?

155

(10)

Unknowable and Biased Statistics

156

(1)

Confusing Averages

156

(2)

Concluding One Thing, Proving Another

158

(1)

Deceiving by Omitting Information

159

(1)

Risk Statistics and Omitted Information

160

(1)

Summary

161

(1)

Practice Exercises

162

(3)

What Significant Information Is Omitted?

165

(14)

The Benefits of Detecting Omitted Information

166

(1)

The Certainty of Incomplete Reasoning

166

(1)

Questions That Identify Omitted Information

167

(5)

The Importance of the Negative View

172

(1)

Omitted Information That Remains Missing

173

(1)

Missing Information and Your Own Writing and Speaking

174

(1)

Practice Exercises

174

(5)

What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible?

179

(12)

Assumptions and Multiple Conclusions

180

(1)

Dichotomous Thinking: Impediment to Considering Multiple Conclusions

180

(1)

Two Sides or Many?

181

(2)

Searching for Multiple Conclusions

183

(1)

Productivity of If-Clauses

184

(1)

Alternative Solutions as Conclusions

185

(1)

The Liberating Effect of Recognizing Alternative Conclusions

186

(1)

Summary

186

(1)

Practice Exercises

187

(4)

Practice and Review

191

(12)

Question Checklist for Critical Thinking

191

(1)

Asking the Right Questions: A Comprehensive Example

192

(2)

What Are the Issue and Conclusion?

194

(1)

What Are the Reasons?

194

(1)

What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous?

195

(1)

What Are the Value Conflicts and Assumptions?

196

(1)

What Are the Descriptive Assumptions?

196

(1)

Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?

197

(1)

How Good Is the Evidence?

198

(1)

Are There Rival Causes?

199

(1)

Are the Statistics Deceptive?

199

(1)

What Significant Information Is Omitted?

200

(1)

What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible?

201

(2)

Final Word

203

(2)

The Tone of Your Critical Thinking

203

(1)

Strategies for Effective Critical Thinking

204

(1)

Index

205

What is included with this book?

The New copy of this book will include any supplemental materials advertised. Please check the title of the book to determine if it should include any access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.

The Used, Rental and eBook copies of this book are not guaranteed to include any supplemental materials. Typically, only the book itself is included. This is true even if the title states it includes any access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.

As a book ages, it becomes less and less the product of its original authors. The success ofAsking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinkingis a tribute to the sound advice we have received from the many readers who thought we could do better next time around and who told us so. In fact, one of our biggest challenges has been to pick and choose from among the suggestions. Always uppermost in our mind has been the desire to retain the primary attributes ofAsking the Right Questions,while adjusting to new emphases in our own thought and the evolving needs of our readers. For instance, while we can always think of dozens of additions that would, we believe, enhance new editions ofAsking the Right Questions,we want most of all to keep the book readable and short. We are willing to pay the price of omitting several things that would be apposite in a more weighty treatment of critical thinking because those who adopt or learn fromAsking the Right Questionshave noted the crispness and cohesion of our approach so frequently. Individual readers who do not see their suggestions included will surely understand that writing for a general audience requires us to omit many valuable components that we would certainly include were we writing for a more specialized group of readers. This new edition, like its predecessors, has been modified while retaining basic framework of a simplified guide to critical thinking. Several new practice passages have been inserted. In addition, we have completely rewritten the fallacies chapter to make it more coherent and to provide new illustrations. But what is particularly fresh about the seventh edition are three new foci: Emphasizing the positive dimensions of critical thinking so that users will be more eager to use the skills and attitudes they are learning; Reminding readers frequently that each skill is but one part of a critical and constructive process that should culminate in tentative commitment; and Creating a Web site containing multiple, diverse practice opportunities. Learning critical thinking is neither simple nor easy. But even after critical thinking has been learned to some degree, there is still the challenge of desiring to use a process that can often be seen as rude, mean, or arrogant. None of us wishes to exhibit habits of mind that brand us as obnoxious. Yet at the same time, we do not want to base our behavior solely on the reactions of others to it; otherwise, we would just be a puppet of the crowd. So we need to frame critical thinking in a manner that emphasizes its role in assisting us to make decisions that are both more reflective and caring as well. We learn critical thinking to be helpful to ourselves and to others. Critical thinking prevents us from courses of action that are inconsistent with whom we want to become. In addition, it assists others who are seeking beliefs and commitments built on relatively sound structures of reasoning. In those regards, critical thinking can be an act of friendship, moving others toward more reasonable beliefs and actions. The seventh edition tries to make that point in several contexts. The second new focus in this edition is based on the fear that learning individual steps in any process can prevent our appreciation of the power of the entire process wherein all the steps are used in tandem.Asking the Right Questionsbuilds the critical-thinking process one step at a time; each chapter introduces a particular critical-thinking skill. Subsequent chapters then add to the list of accumulating critical-thinking skills. But the entire rationale for learning the steps of critical thinking is to get ready to use them as a package, a cohesive assemblage of complementary abilities. Using the entire process of critical thinking is the most rewarding pathway to finding better arguments. Finally, one thing that our readers request again

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Asking the Right Questions : A Guide to Critical Thinking

Asking the Right Questions : A Guide to Critical Thinking

0131829939

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