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Beginning Behavioral Research : A Conceptual Primer

ISBN: 9780137915422 | 013791542X
Edition: 3rd
Format: Hardcover
Publisher: Prentice Hall
Pub. Date: 8/1/1998

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SummaryTable of Contents
Revision of undergrad research methods textbook for psychology, authored by two top research methodologists with excellent names in the field. For students who are required to plan, analyze, and interpret empirical studies and the data they generate. Features strong coverage of statistical power and effect size and an optional discussion of meta-analysis, along with comprehensive coverage of the research process.
... MORE
PrefaceXV
PART I GETTING STARTED1(79)
1 The Scientific Outlook
1(23)
Preview Questions
1(1)
Why Study Research Methods?
1(3)
Peirce's Methods of "Fixing Belief"
4(3)
What Is Empirical Reasoning?
7(1)
Empirical Reasoning in Behavioral Science
8(1)
The Rhetoric of Science
9(2)
Other Shared Features of the Scientific Method
11(1)
What Is Behavioral Science?
12(2)
Broad Research Approaches
14(1)
Descriptive Research
15(1)
Relational Research
15(1)
Experimental Research
16(1)
Orienting Attitudes of the Scientist
17(2)
Summary of Ideas
19(2)
Key Terms
21(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
21(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
22(2)
2 Strategies of Discovery
24(33)
Preview Questions
24(1)
The Stages of Discovery
24(2)
The Initial Thinking Stage
26(10)
Using an Intensive Case Study
26(2)
Making Sense of a Paradoxical Incident
28(1)
Using Metaphors and Analogies
28(2)
Resolving Conflicting Results
30(2)
Improving on Older Ideas
32(2)
Exploiting Serendipity
34(2)
The Plausibility Stage
36(8)
Focusing and Assessing Ideas
36(1)
Avoiding Plagiarism and Lazy Writing
36(1)
Searching the Literature
37(1)
PsyLIT and Machine-Readable Database
38(3)
Defining Terms and Variables
41(1)
A Summary Illustration
42(2)
The Acceptability Stage
44(7)
Theories and Hypotheses
44(1)
Molding Ideas Into Acceptable Hypotheses
45(2)
Constructs and Variables
47(1)
Examples of Independent Variables
48(1)
Example of Dependent Variables
49(2)
Discovery as Exploration
51(1)
Summary of Ideas
52(1)
Key Terms
53(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
54(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
55(2)
3 Ethical Considerations
57(23)
Preview Questions
57(1)
What Are Ethical Guidelines?
57(2)
Principle I. Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy
59(2)
Principle II. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
61(3)
Principle III. Justice
64(1)
Principle IV. Trust
65(1)
Principle V. Fidelity and Scientific Integrity
66(1)
Deception
67(4)
Milgram's Use of Deception
68(2)
Is Deception Ever Justified?
70(1)
Debriefing Participants
71(2)
The Use of Animals in Research
73(2)
Ethical Issues Throughout the Research Process
75(1)
Summary of Ideas
76(1)
Key Terms
77(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
77(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
78(2)
PART II OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT80(76)
4 Systematic Observational Methods
80(23)
Preview Questions
80(1)
The Researcher As Observer
80(2)
Naturalistic Observation
82(6)
Participant-Observer Research
83(2)
Ethnographic Research
85(3)
Content Analysis of Archival Data
88(2)
The Laboratory Experiment
90(1)
Rival Interpretations
91(2)
The Field Experiment
93(2)
Reactive and Nonreactive Observation
95(1)
Unobtrusive Observation
96(2)
Using Judges as Observers
98(1)
A Final Note
99(1)
Summary of Ideas
99(1)
Key Terms
100(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
101(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
102(1)
5 Self-Report Methods
103(31)
Preview Questions
103(1)
Looking Within Oneself
103(1)
Three Basic Considerations
104(1)
Open-Ended versus Closed Questions
105(1)
Projective Measures of Personality
106(2)
Structured Measures of Personality
108(1)
Numerical Scales
109(3)
Forced-Choice Scales
112(1)
Graphic Scales
113(1)
Rating Errors and Their Control
113(3)
The Semantic Differential
116(2)
The Likert Scale
118(1)
The Thurstone Scale
118(1)
Pilot-Testing Your Questionnaire
122(1)
Interviews versus Questionnaires
123(1)
Planning and Pilot-Testing the Interview
123(2)
The Critical Incident Technique
125(2)
Interviews by Telephone
127(1)
Memory and the Use of Behavioral Diaries
128(2)
Summary of Ideas
130(1)
Key Terms
131(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
132(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
133(1)
6 Reliability and Validity
134(22)
Preview Questions
134(1)
Random and Systematic Error
134(1)
Reliability
135(10)
Test-Retest Reliability
135(2)
Internal-Consistency Reliability
137(2)
What Is Acceptable Reliability?
139(2)
Applications to Reliability of Judges
141(1)
Using a Table of Estimated Values
142(2)
Replication and Reliability
144(1)
Validity
145(7)
Content Validity
145(1)
Criterion Validity
146(1)
Construct Validity
147(1)
Detailed Example: Crowne and Marlowe's Research
148(2)
Validity in Experimental Design
150(2)
Summary of Ideas
152(1)
Key Terms
153(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
154(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
154(2)
PART III DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION156(72)
7 The Logic of Randomized Experiments
156(24)
Preview Questions
156(1)
A Basic Framework
156(2)
Random Assignment of Subjects
158(3)
Four Kinds of Causation
161(1)
Three Criterial of Efficient Causation
162(1)
Uncertainty of Causal Inference
163(1)
Mill's Methods and the Logic of Experimental Control
164(1)
Teasing Out Effects of Interest
165(1)
The Solomon Design
166(2)
Preexperimental Designs
168(1)
History, Maturation, Instrumentation, and Selection
169(1)
The Social Psychology of the Experiment
170(5)
Subject-Related Artifacts
171(2)
Experimenter Expectancy and Its Control
173(2)
Summary of Ideas
175(1)
Key Terms
176(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
177(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
178(2)
8 The Role of Quasi-Experimental Designs
180(23)
Preview Questions
180(1)
The Role of Quasi-Experimentation
180(1)
Nonequivalent-Groups Designs
181(2)
Inferring Causation and Moderation
183(3)
Interrupted Time-Series Designs
186(3)
Single-Case Experimental Designs
189(2)
Alternative Single-Case Designs
191(2)
Correlational Designs
193(1)
Cross-Lagged Panel Designs
194(2)
Longitudinal Designs Using Cohorts
196(3)
Summary of Ideas
199(1)
Key Terms
200(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
200(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
201(2)
9 Survey Designs and Subject Recruitment
203(25)
Preview Questions
203(1)
Selecting the Research Participants
203(2)
Basic Concepts in Survey Samples
205(2)
Simple Random Sampling
207(3)
Random Sampling Options
210(1)
Stratification in Sampling
211(1)
Area Probability Sampling
211(1)
Lessons Learned by George Gallup
212(2)
Point and Interval Estimates
214(1)
Benefits of Stratification
215(2)
Estimating the Bias Due to Nonresponse
217(2)
Increasing the Rate of Response
219(1)
Characteristics of Volunteer Subjects
219(2)
Implications for Research Conclusions
221(2)
Increasing Participation and Ethical Accountability
223(1)
Pilot Testing as a Final Step
223(1)
Summary of Ideas
224(1)
Key Terms
225(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
225(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
226(2)
PART IV DESCRIBING AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING228(60)
10 Summarizing the Data
228(21)
Preview Questions
228(1)
Statistical Procedures
228(1)
Visualizing Data
229(3)
Stem-and-Leaf Displays
232(1)
Percentiles and the Median
233(1)
Applying What We Have Learned
234(2)
The Mode and the Mean
236(1)
Dealing With Outliers
237(1)
The Crude and Extended Range
238(1)
The Variance and the Standard Deviation
239(2)
Descriptive and Inferential Formulas
241(1)
The Normal Distribution
242(1)
Standard Scores
243(1)
Comparing Standard Scores
244(1)
Summary of Ideas
245(1)
Key Terms
246(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
247(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
247(2)
11 Examining Relationships
249(18)
Preview Questions
249(1)
The Correlation Coefficient
249(2)
Visualizing the Correlation Coefficient
251(2)
Calculating the Pearson
253(2)
Spearman Rank Correlation
255(4)
Point-Biserial Correlation
259(2)
Phi Coefficient
261(2)
A Final Note
263(1)
Summary of Ideas
263(1)
Key Terms
264(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
264(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
265(2)
12 Statistical Significance and Practical Importance
267(21)
Preview Questions
267(1)
Use of Statistics and Probabilities
267(2)
The Null Hypothesis in Significance Testing
269(1)
Probability Revisited
270(1)
Type I and Type II Errors
271(2)
Risks of Gullibility and Blindness
273(1)
Finding the Significance of r
274(2)
Binomial Effect-Size Display (BESD)
276(3)
Please Don't Square the Effect Size!
279(1)
Statistical Power Analysis
280(2)
Constructing a Confidence Interval
282(2)
Summary of Ideas
284(1)
Key Terms
285(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
286(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
286(2)
PART V STATISTICAL DECISION MAKING288(74)
13 The t Test
288(17)
Preview Questions
288(1)
Comparing Two Means
288(1)
Signal-to-Noise Ratios
289(2)
Comparing Independent Samples
291(2)
Using the t Table to Find p
293(2)
Measuring the Effect Size
295(2)
The Confidence Interval and the BESD
297(1)
Optimizing the t Test
297(2)
Comparing Related Samples
299(3)
Summary of Ideas
302(1)
Key Terms
302(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
302(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
303(2)
14 The F Test
305(23)
Preview Questions
305(1)
F and t
305(1)
The Logic of ANOVA
306(2)
Dividing Up the Variance
308(1)
Computing the One-Way ANOVA
309(1)
The ANOVA Summary Table
310(2)
Using the F Table to Find p
312(2)
After the F, t Revisited
314(2)
Two-Way Designs
316(2)
Effects and the Factorial ANOVA
318(1)
The Concept of Error
319(1)
Computing the Two-Way ANOVA
320(3)
Repeated-Measures ANOVA Designs
323(1)
Summary of Ideas
324(1)
Key Terms
325(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
325(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
326(2)
15 Chi-Square
328(15)
Preview Questions
328(1)
The Utility of Chi-Square
328(1)
Computing 2 x 2 Chi-Squares
329(3)
Finding the p Value, Effect Size, and Confidence Interval
332(2)
Phi and Chi-Square
334(1)
Larger Tables of Counts
335(1)
Interpreting Large Tables
336(1)
Taking the Margins into Account
337(2)
A Journey Begun
339(1)
Summary of Ideas
340(1)
Key Terms
340(1)
Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
341(1)
Discussion Questions for Review
341(2)
Answers to Review Questions
343(19)
Appendix A Writing Up the Research
362(45)
The Research Report
362(1)
Getting Organized
362(1)
Writing a Research Proposal
363(1)
EXHIBIT A.1 Sample Research Proposal
364(2)
Avoiding Plagiarism
366(1)
Title Page
367(1)
Abstract
368(1)
Introduction
368(1)
Method
369(1)
Results
369(1)
Discussion
370(1)
References
371(1)
Appendix
371(1)
Writing and Revising
371(1)
Layout and Printing
372(2)
EXHIBIT A.2 Format of an Undergraduate Research Report Submitted as a Term Paper
374(18)
EXHIBIT A.3 Format of a Research Report Based on the APA Publication Manual
392(15)
Appendix B Statistical Tables
407(13)
B.1 z Values and Their Associated One-Tailed p Values
408(1)
B.2 t Values and Their Associated One-Tailed and Two-Tailed p Values
409(2)
B.3 F Values and Their Associated p Values
411(5)
B.4 X(2) Values and Their Associated p Values
416(1)
B.5 r Values and Their Associated p Values
417(1)
B.6 Transformations of r to Fisher z(r)
418(1)
B.7 Transformations of Fisher z(r) to r
419(1)
Appendix C Introduction to Meta-Analysis
420(9)
Utility of Meta-Analysis
420(1)
Importance of Effect Sizes
420(2)
Comparing Two Effect Sizes
422(2)
Combining Two Effect Sizes
424(1)
Comparing Two Significance Levels
424(1)
Combining Two Significance Levels
425(1)
Detective-Like Probing of Reported Data
426(1)
The File Drawer Problem
427(2)
Glossary429(14)
References443(20)
Name Index463(5)
Subject Index468

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