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Assessing and Correcting Reading and Writing Difficulties

ISBN: 9780205274383 | 0205274382
Format: Hardcover
Publisher: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
Pub. Date: 11/1/1997

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Table of Contents
Prefacexxiii
1 Introduction to Reading Difficulties
1(19)
Using What You Know
1(1)
... MORE
Anticipation Guide
1(1)
Reading Difficulty Defined
2(3)
Discrepancy Definition
2(1)
Functional Definition
3(2)
Incidence of Reading Problems
5(1)
The Problem with Using Labels
6(1)
The Nature of Corrective Instruction
7(2)
An Interactive View
8(1)
A Systems Approach
9(2)
Interlocking Aspects of Reading
10(1)
Principles of Corrective Instruction
11(5)
Prevention versus Correction
11(1)
Importance of Success
12(1)
Building on the Known
12(1)
Fostering Independence
12(1)
Active Involvement
13(1)
Personalized Instruction
13(1)
Continuous Assessment
14(1)
A Full Range of Literacy Experiences
14(1)
Direct, Systematic Instruction
14(1)
An Integrated Approach
15(1)
Wide Reading
15(1)
Providing Materials with the Appropriate Challenge Level
16(1)
A Sense of Community
16(1)
Sources of Help for Low-Achieving Readers
16(2)
Title 1 Legislation
17(1)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
17(1)
The Whys of Reading Problems
18(1)
Summary
18(1)
Application Activities
19(1)
2 Factors Involved in Reading and Writing Difficulties
20(34)
Using What You Know
20(1)
Anticipation Guide
20(1)
Interacting Factors in Reading And Writing Difficulty
21(1)
Cognitive Factors
22(7)
Overall Cognitive Ability
22(1)
Memory
23(2)
Associative Learning
25(1)
Attention
26(3)
Visual Processing Deficits
29(3)
Reversals
29(1)
Delayed or Faulty Directionality
30(2)
Other Visual Processing Deficits
32(1)
Language Factors
32(4)
Articulation Difficulties
33(1)
Phonological Factors
33(1)
Rapid Automatized Naming
34(1)
Word Finding
34(2)
Social and Emotional Factors
36(5)
Fight or Flight
37(1)
Developing a Sense of Self-Efficacy
37(2)
Parental Pressure
39(1)
Helping Students Overcome Negative Behaviors
39(2)
Physical Causes
41(9)
Neurological Factors
41(1)
Hearing Impairments
41(4)
Vision Impairments
45(4)
Physical Health
49(1)
Educational Factors
50(1)
Need for Balanced Instruction
51(1)
Social and Cultural Factors
51(1)
Economic Factors
52(1)
Summary
53(1)
Application Activities
53(1)
3 Overview of Assessment
54(16)
Using What You Know
54(1)
Anticipation Guide
54(1)
Principles of Effective Assessment
55(1)
Dynamic Assessment
56(4)
Asslsted Testing
57(2)
Levels of Knowledge
59(1)
Trial Teaching
59(1)
Authentic Assessment
60(1)
Tests
61(4)
Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Tests
62(2)
Survey versus Diagnostic Tools
64(1)
Individual Tests
64(1)
Formal versus Informal Tests
64(1)
Evaluating Assessment Devices
65(3)
Reliability
65(1)
Validity
66(1)
Standard Error of Measurement
67(1)
Fairness
68(1)
Functional Level Assessment
68(1)
Summary
68(1)
Application Activities
69(1)
4 Placing Students: The Informal Reading Inventory and Related Measures
70(31)
Using What You Know
70(1)
Anticipation Guide
70(1)
The Informal Reading Inventory
71(18)
The IRI As a Placement Device
73(1)
Administering the Word Lists Tests
74(2)
Interpreting the Results of the Word Lists Tests
76(1)
Administering the IRI Passages
77(7)
Interpreting Inventory Results
84(5)
Miscue Analysis
89(2)
Adapted Miscue Analysis
89(2)
Running Records
91(5)
Analyzing Miscues in a Running Record
94(1)
Comparing IRI, Miscue Analysis, and Running Records
95(1)
IRI-Based Tests
96(2)
Oral Reading Tests
96(1)
Word Lists Tests
97(1)
Group Inventories
97(1)
Minicase Study
98(1)
Summary
99(1)
Application Activities
100(1)
5 Assessment of Reading and Writing Processes
101(27)
Using What You Know
101(1)
Anticipation Guide
101(1)
Reading Processes: Decoding
102(1)
Reading Processes: Comprehension
103(6)
Think-Alouds
105(2)
Questionnaires and Interviews
107(1)
Observations
108(1)
Anecdotal Records
108(1)
Vocabulary Knowledge
109(2)
Writing: Assessment of Writing
111(7)
Role of Students
111(1)
Assessment Techniques
111(1)
Evaluating Pieces of Writing
112(2)
Using Portfolios to Assess Writing
114(3)
Assessing Writing Samples
117(1)
Spelling
118(5)
Stages of Spelling
119(2)
Determining the Stages of Spelling
121(2)
Handwriting
123(2)
Assessing Study Skills
125(2)
Summary
127(1)
Application Activities
127(1)
6 Assessment of Cognitive, School, and Home Factors
128(25)
Using What You Know
128(1)
Anticipation Guide
128(1)
Assessment Of Capacity
129(4)
Role of Intelligence Tests
130(1)
Wechsler Scales
130(2)
Stanford-Binet
132(1)
Slosson Intelligence Test
132(1)
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
133(1)
Assessment of Memory
133(1)
Associative Word Learning
134(1)
Word-Finding
135(1)
Assessing the Instructional Situation
136(2)
School Records
137(1)
Case History
138(3)
Using Questionnaires
141(1)
Students' Views
141(2)
Reading Expectancy
143(1)
Listening Capacity
144(1)
Summarizing the Data
144(4)
Making Recommendations
148(1)
Professional Reports
148(2)
Content of the Assessment Report
149(1)
Assessment: An Ongoing Process
150(1)
A Multidisiciplinary Approach
151(1)
Minicase Study
151(1)
Summary
152(1)
Application Activities
152(1)
7 Emergent Literacy and Early Intervention Programs
153(34)
Using What You Know
153(1)
Anticipation Guide
153(1)
Changing Concepts of Emergent Literacy and Intervention
154(5)
A New Concept of Beginning Literacy
154(1)
An Environment that Fosters Literacy
155(1)
Benefits of Reading Aloud
155(1)
Fostering Emergent Literacy
156(1)
Concepts about Print
156(3)
Developing Literacy Concepts
159(1)
Shared Reading
159(1)
Students' Writing
160(4)
Language-Experience Approach
161(1)
Shared Writing
162(2)
Handwriting
164(1)
Phonological Concepts And Reading
164(10)
Assessing Phonemic Awareness
165(3)
Techniques For Building Phonological Skills
168(6)
Letter Knowledge
174(2)
Assessing Letter Name Knowledge
174(1)
Teaching Letter Names
174(1)
Invented Spelling
175(1)
Early Intervention Programs
176(8)
Reading Recovery
176(4)
Other Intervention Programs
180(3)
Model Program for Early Intervention
183(1)
Intructional Routine for an Intervention Program
184(1)
Minicase Study
184(1)
Summary
185(1)
Application Activities
186(1)
8 Teaching High-Frequency Words
187(23)
Using What You Know
187(1)
Anticipation Guide
187(1)
The Nature of High-Frequency Words
188(1)
Stages in Learning to Read Words
188(3)
Logographic Stage
188(1)
Alphabetic Stage
189(1)
Orthographic Stage
189(2)
How High-Frequency Words Are Learned
191(1)
High Payoff of High-Frequency Words
191(2)
Direct-Teaching Approach
193(1)
Indirect Teaching Techniques
194(7)
Shared Reading
194(2)
Singing High-Frequency Words
196(1)
Experience Stories
196(2)
Predictable Books
198(1)
Using Holistic Programs
199(1)
Creating Little Books
200(1)
Read-Along Technique
200(1)
Building Fluency
201(3)
Wide Reading
201(1)
Repeated Readings
201(2)
Carbo Recorded-Book Method
203(1)
Additional Practice Activities for High-Frequency Words
204(2)
Words on the Wall
204(1)
Sight-Word Commands
205(1)
Read the Lable
205(1)
Forming Words
205(1)
Forming Phrases and Sentences
205(1)
Sorting
205(1)
Audiovisual Aids
206(1)
CD-ROM Read Alongs
206(1)
Videos with Words
206(1)
Games
206(2)
Minicase Study
208(1)
Summary
208(1)
Application Activities
209(1)
9 Teaching Phonics
210(48)
Using What You Know
210(1)
Anticipation Guide
210(1)
Phonics and the Poor Reader
211(3)
Example of Decoding Difficulty
211(1)
A Theory of Decoding
212(2)
Principles of Teaching Phonics
214(1)
The Content of Phonics: Consonants
215(1)
Approaches to Teaching Consonants
216(1)
Combined Approach to Teaching Consonant Correspondences
216(1)
Other Consonant Elements
217(5)
Consonant Digraphs
218(1)
Final Consonants
218(4)
Sequence of Teaching Consonants
222(1)
Reinforcement Activities for Consonant Correspondences
222(2)
Using Children's Books
222(1)
Additional Practice Activities
223(1)
The Content of Phonics: Vowels
224(3)
Vowel Generalizations
225(2)
Approaches to Teaching Vowels
227(11)
Vowel Correspondence Approach
227(3)
Pattern Approach
230(1)
Word-Building Approach
230(7)
Make-and-Break Technique for Introducing or Reviewing Patterns
237(1)
Whole-Part-Whole Approaches
237(1)
Sequence of Teaching Vowels
238(1)
Reinforcement Activities
238(6)
Using Sorting to Foster Phonics Knowledge
238(2)
Secret Messages
240(2)
Using Writing to Reinforce Phonics
242(1)
Assembling Words
242(1)
Word Wall
242(1)
Making Words
243(1)
Poems and Verses
244(1)
Pronounceable Word Part And Analogy Strategies
244(4)
Pronounceable Word Part Strategy
244(1)
Teaching the Pronounceable Word-Part Strategy
245(1)
Analogy Strategy
246(1)
How to Figure Out Hard Words
247(1)
Scope and Sequence of Analogy Words and Patterns
248(1)
Other Word-Analysis Programs
248(2)
Balanced Use of Decoding Strategies
250(6)
Using Prompts to Foster the Use of Balanced Decoding Strategies
251(2)
Fostering Self-Correction
253(1)
Balanced Strategies
254(1)
Means to an End
255(1)
Minicase Study
256(1)
Summary
256(1)
Application Activities
257(1)
10 Syllabic, Morphemic, and Contextual Analysis and Dictionary Strategies
258(29)
Using What You Know
258(1)
Anticipation Guide
258(1)
Syllabic Analysis
259(1)
Approaches to Teaching Syllabic Analysis
259(11)
Rules Approach to Syllabication
260(2)
Pattern Approach to Syllabication
262(5)
Pronounceable Word-Part and Analogy Strategies Applied to Polysyllabic Words
267(2)
Additional Syllabic Analysis Programs
269(1)
Morphemic Analysis
270(1)
Teaching Morphemic Elements
271(7)
Making Connections
271(1)
Prefixes
272(2)
Suffixes
274(1)
Roots
275(3)
Contextual Analysis
278(3)
A Two-Stage Process
279(1)
Types of Context Clues
280(1)
Using The Dictionary
281(3)
Teaching Dictionary Skills
282(2)
Electronic Dictionaries
284(1)
A Functional Tool
284(1)
Balanced Use of Strategies
284(1)
Minicase Study
285(1)
Summary
285(1)
Application Activities
286(1)
11 Building Vocabulary
287(21)
Using What You Know
287(1)
Anticipation Guide
287(1)
Low-Achieving Readers and Vocabulary
288(1)
Stages of Word Learning
288(1)
Word Knowledge and Comprehension
289(2)
Improving Comprehension
291(1)
Incidental versus Systematic Instruction
291(1)
Principles of Vocabulary Instruction
292(1)
Establishing Goals
292(1)
Building on What Students Know
292(1)
Building a Depth and Breadth of Meaning
292(1)
Creating an Interest in Words
293(1)
Relating Words to Students' Lives
293(1)
Promoting Independent Word Learning
293(1)
Techniques for Teaching Words
293(11)
Conceptual Teaching of Key Words
294(1)
Brainstorming Techniques
295(1)
Graphic Organizers
296(3)
Other Vocabulary Building Devices
299(4)
Developing Vocabulary through Wide Reading
303(1)
Developing Vocabulary through Reading Aloud
303(1)
Techniques for Remembering Words
304(1)
Key Word Approach
304(1)
A Full Program of Vocabulary Development
305(1)
Minicase Study
305(1)
Summary
306(1)
Application Activities
307(1)
12 Building Comprehension
308(42)
Using What You Know
308(1)
Anticipation Guide
308(1)
Theories of Comprehension
309(1)
Schema Theory
309(1)
Mental Models
310(1)
Causes of Comprehension Difficulty
310(3)
Lack of Basic Decoding Skills or Fluency
311(1)
Lack of Academic Vocabulary
311(1)
Limited Background
312(1)
Students Who Overuse Background
312(1)
Students Who Fail to Read for Meaning
313(1)
Lack of Strategies or Failure to Use Strategies
313(1)
Comprehension Strategies
313(17)
Preparational Strategies
314(1)
Selection Organizational Strategies
315(5)
Elaboration Strategies
320(6)
Metacognitive Awareness
326(4)
Importance of Using Appropriate Materials
330(1)
Beyond Strategies
331(2)
Collaborative Strategy Instruction: An Exemplary Program
331(2)
Questions
333(5)
Creating Questions
334(2)
Levels of Questioning
336(1)
Atmosphere
337(1)
Probes and Prompts
337(1)
Lesson Plans That Foster Comprehension
338(5)
Directed Reading Activity
338(4)
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity
342(1)
Other Techniques For Building Comprehension
343(3)
Cloze Procedure
343(3)
Think Alouds
346(1)
Using a Variety of Teaching Techniques
346(1)
Minicase Study
347(1)
Summary
348(1)
Application Activities
349(1)
13 Reading to Learn in the Content Areas
350(44)
Using What You Know
350(1)
Anticipation Guide
350(1)
Content-Area Reading
351(1)
Framework for Teaching Content-Area Reading
351(2)
Establishing Key Ideas
351(1)
Preparation for Reading
352(1)
Text Structure
353(10)
Narrative Text Structure
353(3)
Expository Text Structures
356(4)
Teaching Text Patterns
360(3)
Instructional Techniques for Fostering Content-Area Comprehension
363(16)
Before-Reading Techniques
363(6)
During-Reading Techniques
369(5)
After-Reading Techniques
374(2)
KWL Plus: A Before-, During-, and After-Reading Technique
376(3)
Outstanding Collaborative Approaches
379(3)
ReQuest
379(1)
Reciprocal Teaching
380(2)
Content Knowledge
382(10)
Teaching Essential Concepts
383(1)
Textbooks in the Content Areas
384(3)
Teaching Literature
387(4)
Theme Units
391(1)
Minicase Study
392(1)
Summary
392(1)
Application Activities
393(1)
14 Building Study Strategies
394(22)
Using What You Know
394(1)
Anticipation Guide
394(1)
Reading to Learn and Remember
395(2)
Requirements for Successful Studying
395(2)
Aids To Studying
397(1)
Principles
397(1)
Organization
398(1)
Association
398(1)
Organizational Study Strategies
398(7)
SQ3R
399(1)
Notetaking Skills
400(1)
Lecture Notes
401(3)
Other Forms of Notetaking
404(1)
Associational Strategies
405(2)
Acronyms
407(1)
Rhymes
407(1)
Acrostics
407(1)
Study Habits
407(3)
Metacognitive Aspects of Studying
408(2)
Preparing For Tests
410(1)
Alternate Testing
411(1)
Test Anxiety
411(1)
Reading Rate
412(2)
Adjusting Reading Rate
412(1)
Increasing Reading Rate
413(1)
Skimming and Scanning
413(1)
A Balanced Program
414(1)
Minicase Study
414(1)
Summary
415(1)
Application Activities
415(1)
15 Building Writing Strategies
416(26)
Using What You Know
416(1)
Anticipation Guide
416(1)
The Writing Process
417(7)
Prewriting
417(3)
Composing
420(1)
Revising
421(1)
Editing
422(1)
Publishing
423(1)
Writing Programs for Low-Achieving Readers and Writers
424(10)
Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing
424(3)
Harris and Graham's Strategy Instruction
427(3)
CRISS Writing Strategies
430(3)
Collaborative Strategy Approach
433(1)
Why the Programs Work
433(1)
Motivating Reluctant Writers
434(2)
Written Conversation
434(1)
Journal Writing
434(2)
Spelling
436(3)
Teaching Spelling
437(2)
Handwriting
439(1)
Minicase Study
440(1)
Summary
441(1)
Application Activities
441(1)
16 Severe Problem Cases, Students Acquiring English, and Older Students
442(22)
Using What You Know
442(1)
Anticipation Guide
443(1)
The Need for Specialized Techniques
443(1)
VAKT Tracing Technique
444(8)
Signs of Need
444(1)
Prerequisites for VAKT
445(1)
Introductory Stage of VAKT
445(2)
Subsequent Stages of VAKT
447(3)
Moving from One Stage to Another
450(1)
Need for a Total Approach
451(1)
Why Is VAKT Effective?
451(1)
Orton-Gillingham Approach
452(2)
Place of Writing
453(1)
Other Orton-Based Approaches
454(1)
Adapted Word Building
454(2)
A Total Program
456(1)
Working with Older Problem Readers: Teens and Adults
456(3)
Assessing Older Learners
456(1)
Programs for Older Problem Readers
457(1)
Commercial Materials
457(2)
Working with Bilingual Learners
459(2)
Selecting Materials
459(1)
Sheltered English
460(1)
Language Experience
460(1)
Adapting Instruction
461(1)
Minicase Study
461(1)
Summary
462(1)
Application Activities
463(1)
17 Materials, Voluntary Reading, and Technology
464(19)
Using What You Know
464(1)
Anticipation Guide
464(1)
Making the Match
465(8)
Readability: The Other Half of the Match
466(4)
Holistic Estimate of Readability
470(1)
Leveling Books
470(3)
Voluntary Reading
473(4)
Determining Interests
473(1)
Building a Classroom Library
473(3)
Initiating Voluntary Reading
476(1)
Technology for the Reading Writing Program
477(3)
Computers as Literacy Tools
478(1)
Telecomputing
479(1)
Videos
479(1)
Adaptive Technology
479(1)
Minicase Study
480(2)
Summary
482(1)
Application Activities
482(1)
18 Organization of Early Intervention and Corrective Programs
483(20)
Using What You Know
483(1)
Anticipation Guide
483(1)
The Changing Face of Remediation
484(1)
A Better Classroom Program
484(1)
Collaboration
485(3)
Professionals Working Together
486(2)
Components of a Corrective Program
488(12)
Goals
488(1)
Selecting Students
488(2)
Curriculum
490(1)
Instructional Approaches
490(1)
Instructional Schedule
491(1)
Typical Corrective Session
491(1)
Discontinuing Students
492(1)
Organizational Patterns
492(1)
Pacing
493(1)
Appropriate Materials
494(1)
Monitoring
494(1)
Grouping
494(2)
Involving Parents
496(1)
Intergenerational Literacy
496(1)
Leadership
497(1)
Working with the Administration
498(1)
Professional Development
498(1)
Volunteer Tutors
498(1)
Evaluation
499(1)
Minicase Study
500(1)
Summary
501(1)
Application Activities
502(1)
Appendix A: Informal Assessment Measures503(9)
Appendix B: High-Interest, Low-Readability Books512(5)
Appendix C: Sample Assessment Report517(9)
References526(27)
Index553

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